Month: December 2024

The Birth of the World’s Most Important Idea: LOGOS

The emergence of philosophy comes from an obscure philosopher from Ephesus named Heraclitus (540-480 B.C.). As the first philosopher of the West, he gave society, its most foundational and important concept: LOGOS (Word). Little is known about his life, and what we have of his writings exists in 129 fragments (brief proverbs, teachings and statements). He was an alone and solitary figure who did not have much use for the masses. As such, he was not a fan of popular democracy which made decisions based off of the will of the majority. Yet, this solitary figure was the first to coin and inspire a concept which would grow to become the most important idea in Western Civilization and more importantly Christian revelation and theology: the Greek term LOGOS which means WORD.

It was this concept of the LOGOS which would become a central organizing idea for understanding and developing science, mathematics, and psychology. Yet, of even greater importance, the concept of LOGOS became a key basis to formulate the understanding of a unified and transcendent God for the gentiles and later an organizing basis for understanding Jesus Christ and the Trinity. Of the 129 fragments of Heraclitus, 3 of them reference the LOGOS directly (Fragments 1, 2 & 50). In addition, other parts of the fragments provide clues as to the philosopher’s thinking. We will look at the three fragments where the LOGOS is directly mentioned; then we will look at other statements of the fragments which provide additional meaning to LOGOS. Finally, we will examine how, in God’s Story of Grace, the LOGOS concept provided a framework to advance human understanding of science, psychology, mathematics and theology.

Heraclitus and the LOGOS

For Heraclitus, the LOGOS was the underlying reality which brings order through all of the changes to the cosmos.

Fragment # 1

Though this Word is true evermore, yet men are as unable to understand it when they hear it for the first time as before they have heard it at all. For, though all things come to pass in accordance with this Word, men seem as if they had no experience of them, when they make trial of words and deeds such as I set forth, dividing each thing according to its kind and showing how it is what it is. But other men know not what they are doing when awake, even as they forget what they do in sleep. (Fragment 1)

Depiction of Heraclitus

Though a somewhat obscure statement, Heraclitus communicates three principles about the LOGOS:

  1. The Word (LOGOS) is always true (true evermore).
  2. The Word (LOGOS) brings all thing to pass, and is before all things (all things come to pass in accordance).
  3. Men barely comprehend and are largely blind to the Word (LOGOS) even though it is the basis of all existence.

Fragment # 2

Though the logos is common, the many live as if they had a wisdom of their own. (Fragment 2)

In this fragment there are two principles which stand in support of what is already observed in Fragment # 1.

  1. The Word (LOGOS) is not only “ever true” (Fragment 1), but it appears to be ever present (logos is common).
  2. Most do not comprehend it or are willfully blind to it because they live as if “they had a wisdom of their own.”

Though the term LOGOS is not used in Fragment 72, Heraclitus gives additional meaning to what we see in Fragment 2.

Most are at odds with that with which they most constantly associate — the account which governs the universe — and … what they meet with every day seems foreign to them. (Fragment 72)

Fragment # 50

 It is wise to hearken, not to me, but to my Word, and to confess that all things are one. (Fragment 50)

Heraclitus, in Fragment 50, appears to see himself as one who expressed the Word (LOGOS). He sees his task as expressing the truth and wisdom of the LOGOS. There are at least two supporting principles that can be seen in this fragment.

  1. The Word (LOGOS) is accessible to people (hearken…to my Word).
  2. The Word (LOGOS) is the unifying reality in and under everything which exists (all things are one).

Summary

A summary of his thinking on the LOGOS would be as follows:

  • Truth # 1: LOGOS is the creative reality by which everything exists and which everything is sustained.
  • Truth # 2: Men do not perceive its reality and often remain in a foolish blindness.
  • Truth # 3: The task of the philosopher is to lead men to live by the LOGOS.

Additional Concepts of LOGOS

Fire

Depiction of Artemis

These shreds of statements may not seem significant. Keep in mind, however, that this is the very first effort for anyone to systematically express that there is a larger unifying reality behind all that is seen. As Heraclitus is relating to his audience, he references common realities as symbols of LOGOS. One of those is fire. German philosopher Martin Heidegger sees that the ancient teacher of wisdom connects LOGOS to fire because the prominent goddess in Ephesus was Artemis–THE LIGHT-BEARER. Artemis was sometimes depicted as one who carries a torch of light in both hands. Five hundred years later it is seen that Artemis was still the chief deity of the city because when Paul was in Ephesus (the very same city of Heraclitus), he caused an uproar as his preaching of Christ posed a threat. This is reported for us in Acts as Demetrius the silversmith, who made silver shrines of Artemis, leads the city in a revolt against Paul (see Acts 19:26-27).

Martin Heidegger interprets Heraclitus’ use of fire as symbolic of how the LOGOS brings light and clarity, revealing what is concealed. In Fragment 30, the sage uses this symbol of Artemis’ fire as a way of showing that the light Artemis is bearing is the LOGOS. This relativizes Artemis with the goal of pointing people to focus on the LOGOS.

This world, which is the same for all, no one of gods or men has made. But it always was, is, and will be: an ever-living Fire… (Fragment 30)

In Fragment 66, the philosopher indicates that the fire (LOGOS) brings judgement to everything. All that is not in alignment with its order experiences a type of correction.

Fire in its advance will judge and convict all things. (Fragment 66)

Soul

In addition, the Greek thinker advances the idea of the soul. He sees the immaterial soul as greater than what anything in this world can fill. The implication is that the soul is closer to its purpose and meaning in the LOGOS than in the physical world.

You will not find the boundaries of soul by travelling in any direction, so deep is the measure of it. (Fragment 45)

The idea that the soul is not meant primarily for this world, and even finds this world to be destructive to it, is expressed in Fragment 85. We see the soul will fight with desire and pay a cost for it.

It is hard to fight with one’s heart’s desire. Whatever it wishes to get, it purchases at the cost of soul. (Fragment 85)

To this is added the idea that the soul increases the influence of the LOGOS in the world in Fragment 115.

To the soul, belongs the self-multiplying Logos. (Fragment 115)

There is much more we can share in regard to Heraclitus and his understanding of the LOGOS. Another idea to explore, but goes beyond the scope of this article is the idea of the reality of LOGOS realized through the tension of opposites. That can be discussed another time.

Let’s end this article by posing several question and providing answers.

Questions and Answers

Question # 1: What difference did this understanding of the LOGOS make in Western Civilization? In the Greek influenced world (like Ephesus), there was no ordered religion which provided a unified way of thinking. There was simply chaos of the gods. It was often the case that different cities had different understandings of the same gods. This was a significant cause which kept the city-states independent from each other. With the introduction of LOGOS, the idea was now advanced that there was a reality beyond what is seen that holds everything together. The LOGOS would become the source of a more unified and systematic understanding of reality beyond the appearance of disorder and chaos. This would eventually provide a framework for advancing science (an ordered understanding of nature), psychology (an ordered understanding of the soul), mathematics (an ordered understanding of structure) and most importantly theology (an ordered and unified understanding of God).

Question # 2: Why was the term LOGOS used to express this reality? LOGOS, which means Word or Speech, communicates the idea that we see indirectly an intelligible rationality behind the universe. It does so in the fact that words, whether heard through the ear (speech) or seen through the eye (writing), shows the evidence of an intentional and intelligible presence, even when we do not see a person present. This evidence of intentionality and intelligence, logically, points to a personal being behind all of this–God. Though this creative and personal being is not directly seen, his speech is. In the midst of the chaos of the world, there is behind all of it an ordered logic (e.g., math and science) and appearance of a creative purpose (e.g., love and justice). The Bible affirms this in both the Old and New Testaments.

Old Testament

1 The heavens declare the glory of God;
    the skies proclaim the work of his hands.
2 Day after day they pour forth speech;
    night after night they reveal knowledge.
3 They have no speech, they use no words;
    no sound is heard from them. (Psalm 19:1-3)

New Testament

20 For since the creation of the world God’s invisible qualities—his eternal power and divine nature—have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made… (Romans 8:20)

Question # 3: How does the LOGOS relate to Christ? The gospel of John begins with describing Jesus as the LOGOS.

In the beginning was the Word (LOGOS), and the Word (LOGOS) was with God, and the Word (LOGOS) was God. (John 1:1)

John’s equating of Jesus with the LOGOS was extremely important for the development of how Jesus was revealed and came to be understood in relation to the Father and the Holy Spirit as Trinity. Because Jesus is the LOGOS (The Word of God the Father), that means that the Father and the Son are inseparable. As the LOGOS, Jesus is like the speech of God the Father who created the whole universe. Bruce Hillman adds insight, “When God spoke the universe into creation, it was the Logos that proceeded from his ‘mouth,’ a Word.” This means that the Word was God. There was no time that the Word (the speech/thought) of God did not exist. Hillman goes on to explain:

And when the Logos took on flesh and lived among us, he did not cease being God’s Logos and, therefore, still eternally God. Before the incarnation, the Logos did not have a body, ;but for our sake became man.’ Thus, in his incarnation, the Logos became Jesus, the God-Man. The Logos makes salvation possible because it merges God and Man in the incarnation of Jesus Christ.

“When God spoke the universe into creation, it was the Logos that proceeded from
his ‘mouth,’ a Word.”

Bruce Hillman

Summary

Nearly 500 years before Christ, God had been working through the Greeks to birth a fundamental concept that would clarify not only our understanding of the world, but it would provide the framework and language for the depth of our understanding of Jesus Christ and the Trinity. This was through an obscure philosopher known by the name of Heraclitus.

Greek Tragedy and the Sustaining of Democracy

A Greek Theater

In the emerging democracy of Greece of the fifth century B.C., a newly created art form of theater helped to cultivate attitudes and foster education which advanced a democratic spirit: “a government of the people, by the people and for the people.” Democracy requires a lot of hard work. The simple idea of “one person, one vote,” is hardly sufficient. If citizens who have that vote are not correctly taught or informed how to think about the larger issues related to matters they are voting on, then it will be misdirected. Furthermore, when dissent or differing viewpoints of fellow citizens are not respected, then democracy will descend into a division of the many (majority opinion) against the few (minority opinion), sometimes leading to mob action–or more extreme–civil war. For the newly birthed democratic revolution in Greece–which had no other country to serve as an example–it was vital that there would be a venue in popular culture to both educate in matters related to the state and encourage toleration of differing views. The avenue which developed was the theater where plays known as tragedies were performed. It was in this setting that as many as twenty thousand people would gather in an amphitheater, and the stories of playwrights would be acted out.

In this article we will examine how the theater with its tragedies helped to sustain the spirit and practice of democracy in ancient Greece. This art form deepened the Story of Grace in which God matured humanity to become more like the Trinity where personal dialog and mutual understanding were increased in order to maintain a life-giving unity.

The Birth of Tragedy

Theater and the Promotion of Democracy

Here are four ways that Greek tragedies helped to promote and nurture democracy:

An Image of Aeschylus, the Greek Tragedy Writer

The first theaters with plays were produced and performed in Athens. These plays were known as tragedies because they emphasized the inevitability of a heroic downfall because of the fragility of human limits and moral error (pride, anger, lust, etc.). Emerging in the wake of Athens’ democratic revolution, people could identify with these plays because Greece had arisen from tremendous amounts of conflict and loss. Further, (like today) they could take comfort that their heroes were all too human like they were. These plays demonstrated anew the fragile balance between order and chaos which grew from the aftermath of the democratic revolution. So popular were these tragedies that over a thousand were produced in the fifth century B.C. Today we only possess some thirty of them which were composed by three authors: Sopholocles, Euripides and (who) The Greek experience was critical because they founded democracy at a time when it had never existed.

Four Ways Greek Theater Cultivated Democracy

  1. Plays nurtured a common civic culture. The outdoor amphitheaters in ancient Greek city-states were places citizens would gather together from different classes and backgrounds as equals. They sat next to each other and participated in the same grand experience. In this setting social walls were broken down, and they came together as one people. For democracy to work the citizens must acknowledge that other citizens are our equals and are entitled to an equal say. This view point is not natural and has to be nurtured in order to be maintained.
  2. Plays encouraged citizens to engage in deeper conversations. After watching plays, citizens would often have more in-depth conversations about moral and political issues which impacted all people. If democracy was to function well, citizens must do a lot of thinking and talking about moral issues related to their political life. As storytellers and as political philosophers, the tragedians educated theater audiences in vital issues. They structured their plots around conflicts of law and justice, mortal men and divine gods, male and female, family and the state, the insiders and outcasts. This exposed the audience to the issues which impact the real nature of debate, dialog and disagreement which occur within democracy.
  3. Plays modeled dialogue. With their often-used rapid form of question-and-answer dialogue to explore issues, plays showed how conversations needed to take place. To learn this skill was essential to the deliberation which was required in democracy. It modeled for them, in certain instances (like Aeschylus’ Oresteia), how to embrace civility in difference and dissent, creating a more open society.
  4. Plays challenged ideas which threatened democracy. For example, in Sophocles’ famous tragedy Antigone, revolves around the question of political supremacy. Pericles, the great Athenian democratic ruler, initiated new policies which elevated political allegiance to the state above all else, including above the allegiances owed to individuals and to one’s family. The all important theme of the power of the state in relation to the individual and family is undertaken. In the Suppliants by Aeschylus, tells the story of fifty fictional women, having fled their homeland of Egypt, pleaded for asylum in a Greek city-state. These suppliants were outsiders in every sense of the word. Yet as women, and as foreigners, they were determined to be treated with state protection and dignity in a land where such a fundamental right was denied to foreigners. (This is an ever relevant discussion in many parts of the world today.) Prometheus Bound concerns the role of the limits of human advancement; Oedipus Rex relates to the power of authority and the fall pride brings, just to name a few. All of these topics, among others, were (and still are) urgently important to think about when it comes participation in the life of the state as a responsible citizen.

The Enduring Legacy

Tragedy is still alive for the very reason that it relates to the challenges of our human condition. We are a mix of heroic action and mortal deceit. We attain great heights of achievement only to be toppled by inevitable flaws. This is why today film with tragic themes like The God Father, Titanic, Breaking Bad or Batman are so popular. There are two ways that God advanced his Story of Grace through theater.

In Greek tragedy, humanity more clearly sees its need for grace. The work of God’s grace to mature humanity through the millenniums has been remarkable given humanity’s tragic fallenness. Only God’s grace could overcome the level of brokenness which sin has brought. But this maturing has been a work of grace, in which God’s power guided by love, is progressively overcoming humanity’s sin and depth of brokenness. God, in his grace, has led humanity to such discoveries as language (Babel), navigation (Phoenicians), science (Medes), and now democracy (Greeks). As Paul wonderfully declares:

“But where sin increased, God’s grace increased even more.”

Romans 5:20

Greek tragedy showed the inevitability of sin. For the Greeks, this was their power of the law to show humanity of his need to be delivered from the tragic implications of human selfishness. Yet, the tragic nature of tragedy is just that, it provides no answers to the broken human condition. This deliverance will be ultimately discovered in the life and death and resurrection of Christ.

In Greek tragedy, humanity sees more of the value and viewpoints of others. This creates more of a spirit of toleration. As the audience watched the plays, they experienced a deep sense of pathos (Greek word for suffering) which stirred emotions for the plays character such as sorrow, joy, elation, fear. These made the stories engaging and relatable. These emotions which were wedded to moral lessons helped the Greeks to think and to feel in greater moral categories. Aristotle wrote that this was very healthy for a community. In this new art form, the dynamic and interchangeable love within the Trinity is more fully realized at a larger scale. This identification with one another is more fully reflected in the life of the Trinity which is mirrored in the church. Paul expressed it as follows:

“If one part suffers, every part suffers with it; if one part is honored,
every part rejoices with it.“

1 Corinthians 12:26