From Living Room to Sanctuary: How the Church Building Reshaped Christianity

Christian worship and gatherings evolved significantly, transitioning from intimate gatherings in private residences to the grand construction of public basilicas. This transformation marked a pivotal shift, as private, hidden worship transformed into a visible, public act that resonated deeply within the community. As congregations grew not only in size but also in significance, these impressive structures became essential gathering places, serving as focal points for the faithful and reflecting the multifaceted nature of their beliefs. They encapsulated not just the faith of individuals but also the collective aspirations and cultural identity of society as a whole. This new repurposing of Roman architecture played a crucial role in accelerating a new reality for communities, advancing God’s Story of Grace. They fostered an environment that brought together a new sacred space of joining personal dignity, which was reinforced by communal identity—concepts that would prove foundational to Western social thought. This laid the groundwork for future social and cultural developments that would evolve throughout the centuries.

In this article, we will examine how the basilica as a new place of gathering advanced God’s Story of Grace, forming the image of the trinity in society, which built a new understanding and experience that was both personal (the many) and communal (the one).

From Private Persecution to Public Legitimacy

**House Church at Dura-Europos (3rd century)**

In the Roman Empire’s first three centuries, the emerging Christian community gathered for worship in private homes, a necessity due to periods of persecution and the need for discreet assembly. This was a testament to their unwavering belief and resilience as followers of Jesus. These informal, intimate spaces fostered a sense of close fellowship, centered around shared meals (the agape feast), instruction, and discipleship. Early Christian meetings were humble affairs. Believers assembled in the homes of wealthier members like Lydia or Prisca and Aquila, as noted in Paul’s letter (1 Corinthians 16:9). The architecture was entirely domestic, with rooms adapted for prayer, baptisms (often in a modified courtyard or a separate room), and communal worship. The house at Dura-Europos in Syria is a famous archaeological example, showing a simple residential structure modified into a meeting place.¹ This “house church” model was a necessity during a time when Christians were often a marginalized group and could not build public places of worship.

The narrative shifts dramatically in 313 AD, when Emperor Constantine issued the Edict of Milan, which granted Christianity legal status and full tolerance within the Roman Empire. This act not only ended official persecution but also thrust the Church into public prominence. Christianity moved from the shadows of persecution into the light of imperial favor. The faith exploded in popularity, attracting masses of new converts, and the modest house churches could no longer accommodate the growing congregations. The newly public Church needed a new architectural form. Christian leaders, with imperial patronage, chose to adapt the Roman basilica, which was a public multi-purpose building used for law courts, markets, and public assemblies. This was chosen over the pagan temples for several reasons:

Capacity: The large, rectangular, open interior could house an entire congregation for communal worship, which pagan temples (designed for only a few priests inside who offered sacrifices) could not. The vast, open interior of the basilica, designed to hold large crowds, was perfect for accommodating growing congregations.
Association: Unlike pagan temples, which were deeply rooted in the traditional Roman religious practices, the basilica had no strong ties to these customs, allowing the Church to effectively distance itself from polytheism and create a new identity that resonated with its distinct Christ-centered beliefs and practices.
Dignity: As an official Roman public building, the basilica form already commanded respect and authority, bringing a greater degree of respect to a once marginalized faith. By establishing basilicas as public buildings, Christians moved from the shadows of persecution into the light, becoming central landmarks in cities that reinforced Christianity’s growing prominence and role in civic life.

They did not just adopt the building; they baptized it. They saw the potential of the basilica’s vast, open interior, perfect for large numbers of the faithful to gather and hear the Word.

From Cultural Resistance to Public Influence

The story of the church moving from homes and even underground dwellings (catacombs) to basilicas is one of Christianity transforming the culture by its missional movement. This transition marked a pivotal moment in history, signifying not just a physical change in location but also a profound shift in how Christianity engaged with the broader world. This physical adoption had profound and immediate consequences for Western civilization and God’s work in the world:

The Architecture of Community

By adopting the basilica, the church established a communal space as the core of its physical expression, ensuring that worship could be accessible to all members of the community. Unlike the mystery cults or pagan rituals that often took place in private or exclusive temples, Christian worship in the basilica was public and inclusive, inviting individuals from all walks of life to participate in the sacred rites. The architectural choice of the basilica not only provided a grand and welcoming environment but also symbolized the openness and universality of the Christian faith. This design encouraged greater interaction among congregants, fostering a sense of belonging and connection within the community.

The Enduring Framework of Western Law

The shift from the magistrate’s judgment seat to the bishop’s teaching chair was a seismic transfer of authority. The basilica was the physical embodiment of Roman law. When the Western Roman Empire crumbled and the legions retreated, the only organized authority that remained was the Church. The legal and administrative framework that had once been dispensed from the secular apse (arch) was now administered from the spiritual one. The Church adopted Roman legal principles, canon law, and administrative organization, all housed within the familiar basilica structure. This ensured the survival of Roman legal thought as the empire crumbled under the foot of barbarian invasion. The very concept of a structured, institutional body of law—a cornerstone of Western governance—endured because its physical home was preserved and repurposed by the Church.

The Birth of the Public Square

The Christian basilica created a new kind of gathering place: a structured space for moral instruction, reflection, and community gathering. This became the model for countless public institutions throughout Western history, from town halls to university lecture halls. It established the idea of a dedicated, formal civic space that was not just for commerce or military assembly, but for the higher purpose of social and moral cohesion. Today, when you walk into a modern courthouse, a state capitol building, or a university hall with its central aisle and raised platform, you are walking through the architectural ghost of the Roman basilica.

What Happened to House Churches?

House churches continued into the fourth and fifth centuries, even as larger, dedicated church buildings became more common after Christianity was legalized. While formal structures like basilicas emerged, many Christians continued to meet in homes. The shift from house churches to dedicated buildings was a gradual one. In many cases, existing private homes were remodeled for Christian worship, sometimes incorporating features like baptismal baths. Even with new, large churches being built, it was not always practical or desirable for all Christians to gather in one place. Smaller, more intimate house church settings remained important for many communities. In some regions, Christians continued to meet in homes due to ongoing persecution or simply because it was more accessible or preferred than using a large, public building.

Conclusion

The decision made by early Christian leaders—to utilize the remnants of the empire for the construction of their places of worship—accomplished more than merely providing a sanctuary for the church. It preserved the principles of structured law, defined the essence of communal gathering spaces, and significantly influenced the physical and philosophical landscape of the West. This development represented a progression in God’s Story of Grace by integrating a new space to cultivate the Trinitarian image within society, emphasizing personal dignity alongside communal identity.

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The Dura-Europos house church was a private home in the ancient city of Dura-Europos (modern-day Syria) that was converted into a Christian meeting place around 240 AD. It is significant as one of the earliest known Christian assembly buildings, featuring well-preserved frescoes, particularly in the baptistery, that depict biblical scenes like the Good Shepherd and the Healing of the Paralytic. The conversion involved architectural changes, such as removing walls to create a larger meeting hall and adding a baptistery with a font, which made it suitable for Christian worship while remaining discreet.
The basilica—from the Greek basilike, meaning “royal”—was a symbol of that power. It was the civic heart of every Roman town: a spacious, rectangular hall with a raised apse at one end, where a magistrate sat in judgment, administering justice and collecting taxes. It also featured high central ceilings with clerestory windows for light.
Ancient mystery cults often conducted their core rituals in private, exclusive temples or designated sacred spaces, distinct from the public, state-sponsored religious ceremonies. The very term “mystery” (from the Greek myein, to shut one’s eyes or lips) refers to the secrecy surrounding their rites. Only individuals who had undergone a special initiation process (mystai) were permitted to participate, and they took vows of secrecy, often under penalty of death for revealing the details. Mithraea: The cult of Mithras, popular among Roman soldiers, conducted its rituals in small, windowless, often underground temples called mithraea. These were the architectural “antithesis” of open public temples. Sanctuaries and Shrines: Major cults like the Eleusinian Mysteries had dedicated sanctuaries where secret ceremonies took place in a central, restricted hall (the Telesterion). Private Settings: Beyond formal temples, some rites, like those of Bacchic groups, were held in private voluntary organizations (thiasoi), sometimes in remote locations like mountains, to engage in ecstatic worship away from public view.

Previous article: The Latin Vulgate: How Jerome’s Bible Defined a Millennium of European Culture

The Latin Vulgate: How Jerome’s Bible Defined a Millennium of European Culture

The year is 382, and Rome is in turmoil. The old empire is crumbling, and with it, the authority of its once-unassailable institutions. In the midst of this chaos, a brilliant and notoriously cantankerous scholar named Jerome was commissioned by Bishop Damasus to create a standardized Latin translation of the Bible. As Christianity spread through the western part of the Roman Empire: North Africa and Spain, then to Italy, Gaul (modern-day France), and Germany, there was a growing need for Latin versions of the Bible for those who did not understand the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the Old Testament) or the Greek letters of the New Testament. Initial Latin translations were made independently by various individuals and churches, without central authority. A patchwork of different regional versions was filled with inconsistencies and errors. The church needed a unified text, one that could be held as authoritative and authentic for the millions now impacted by the Christian message.

**Map Demonstrating the Need for a Latin Translation of the Bible**

It would be Jerome’s translation of the Bible that would advance the march of God’s Story of Grace in ways that can hardly be calculated. But its strongest contribution was to provide a common language, theology, and story to unify the western nations, many of whom were escaping barbarism and paganism to follow Christ. In this article, we will trace the journey to the translation of the Latin Vulgate and its impact on civilization. It took a fractured Europe and brought it together under the authority of God’s Word.

The Call to Translate

Jerome, a Roman-educated scholar, became seriously ill in Antioch in 375 AD. A powerful vision during his illness led him to abandon his worldly ambitions and embrace life as a desert monk to follow Jesus Christ. Following in the ways of the desert fathers, he entered into the life of a monk around 373 AD, about five years before he was commissioned by Bishop Damasus. Living in a desert cell in very austere conditions outside of Antioch in the Syrian desert, he disciplined himself to learn Hebrew and engage in scriptural study to know God better. Without realizing it, this would prepare him for his monumental translation work to which he would be called.1 As Damasus approached him, he left the area of Antioch and settled in Bethlehem, eventually immersing himself more deeply in the study of Hebrew and Aramaic to translate the Old Testament directly from its original sources—a radical act for his time.2 While his contemporaries favored translating the Old Testament from the Greek Septuagint because they believed it was inspired and authoritative, Jerome’s approach was rooted in his conviction that going back ad fontes (“to the sources”) was the only way to achieve a truly accurate and sound translation.

For more than two decades, Jerome labored in his Bethlehem monastery, dedicating himself to his work. By 405 A.D., he produced a polished and accessible translation in the “vulgar” (common language) Latin of the day, more commonly titled The Latin Vulgate. This translation would be widely comprehensible to millions. The Vulgate was more than just a new translation; it was a cultural and spiritual linchpin to hold Western civilization together for a millennium.

A Thousand Years of Influence

The Vulgate became a force for unity: With the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Church became a unifying force across a fractured continent. This unity would have been impossible without a common book. The Vulgate empowered the Church by providing a single, authoritative scripture that stabilized language, stories, doctrine, and worship practices. Kings and emperors, such as Charlemagne, relied on the Vulgate to unify their realms under a common Christian worldview. Even the Protestant Reformers, though knowing Greek and Hebrew, would commonly quote the Vulgate.

The Vulgate became formative for the development of theology: The Latin translation shaped the theological language of Western Europe for centuries. Jerome’s translation would give rise to many other translations including the first English translation of the Bible from John Wycliffe and his followers around 1382. The Gutenberg Bible, one of the first books ever printed, was a copy of the Vulgate, ensuring its continued dominance into the modern era. Even the King James translators consulted the Vulgate.³ In addition, the Latin terms Jerome used shifted the understanding, or at least the way they were read, of some of the key Greek terms in the New Testament. The Latin terms Jerome used in translating the Greek, in some cases, took on a more legal, governmental and military shift.⁴ This would have an enduring influence on theological development.

Conclusion

The work of Jerome was central for unifying the western countries of Europe around a common theme of God’s revelation in Christ through the Old and New Testaments. As Christianity spread throughout Europe, this Bible created a common theology, language and unifying story for which civilization could be brought and held together as the Roman Empire fell apart. Within the scriptures itself, we see this is the desire of God for the nations:

I will bless those who bless you,
and whoever curses you I will curse;
and all peoples on earth
will be blessed through you. (Genesis 12:3)

Now there were staying in Jerusalem God-fearing Jews from every nation under heaven. (Acts 2:5)

After this I looked, and there before me was a great multitude that no one could count, from every nation, tribe, people and language, standing before the throne and before the Lamb. (Revelation 7:9)

Though this reality will not be fully attained until the return of the Savior to the earth, through the Latin Vulgate, the world would become more trinitarian as the MANY different nations would become more unified as ONE around the Story of Grace.

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Before being approached by Pope Damasus, Jerome was motivated to study Hebrew by a desire for penance and a need to overcome temptations during his life as a desert hermit. This was combined with a passion for precise biblical scholarship and a growing conviction that translations of the Old Testament should be based on the original Hebrew texts.
Translating the Old Testament from the Hebrew was a radical act at Jerome’s time because the church primarily used the Greek Septuagint translation, and many Christians considered it divinely inspired. Jerome’s decision to base his translation on the Hebrew Bible was controversial because it challenged the authority of the Septuagint, seemed to connect Christianity too closely to its Jewish roots, and was seen by some as an insult to the Greek-speaking East of the church.
By the time of the Protestant Reformation (1517), the very success of the Vulgate had ironically made it inaccessible to the average person. Latin had evolved from the common spoken language of the Roman Empire into a scholarly and ecclesiastical language, no longer understood by the average person.
Below is a comparison chart of some of the key theological shifts in terms.

Original Greek Word	Vulgate Latin Translation	Meaning Shift and Doctrinal Impact
*metanoia*	*paenitentia*	Metanoia means “a change of mind” or “repentance” in Greek. Jerome translated it as *paenitentia, which comes from the Latin verb paenitere*, meaning “to cause to regret or repent” or “to perform an act of penitence”. This translation led to a shift from an internal change of heart to the external, ritualistic actions of the sacrament of penance in Latin theology.
*kecharitōmenē*	*gratia plena*	In Luke 1:28, the angel’s greeting to Mary, kecharitōmenē, means “highly favored one” or “having been graced”. Jerome rendered it as *gratia plena*, “full of grace”. This change, though subtle, emphasized the Catholic doctrine that Mary was filled with grace in a unique, permanent sense, rather than simply being the recipient of a divine favor.
*ethnos*	*gentilis*	The Greek word ethnos simply means “nation” or “people group” without any negative connotation. Jerome’s choice of *gentilis* for “Gentile” carried a more negative meaning, sometimes implying “foreigner” or “heathen” in Latin. This introduced a subtle racial and religious hierarchy that was not present in the original Greek.
*logos*	*verbum*	Logos is a rich Greek word encompassing ideas of “word,” “reason,” and “divine meaning”. The Vulgate’s translation as *verbum* captured the idea of “word” but lost some of the philosophical depth of the Greek, which had been influenced by Stoic and Platonic thought. This flattened the concept to a more literal, spoken word.
*mysterion*	*sacramentum*	The Greek *mysterion* means “a secret rite” or “revealed secret”. By translating it as *sacramentum*, Jerome applied a term that had existing legal and military connotations in Latin, related to an oath of allegiance. The new word helped define the Christian sacraments as sacred oaths or rituals.

Previous article: The Ascending Church: A Theodosius and the Council of Constantinople

Next article: From Living Room to Sanctuary: How the Church Building Reshaped Christianity

The Ascending Church: A Theodosius and the Council of Constantinople

**depiction of the Council of Constantinople**

Emperor Theodosius, who lived from 347–395, was a man with a singular ambition: to unite the Roman Empire not just politically, but spiritually, under the banner of Nicene Christianity.¹ Upon ascending the throne in 379 AD, he sought to consolidate the church under the affirmation of the Nicene Creed. Theodosius assembled 150 bishops in 381 AD to settle the Arian controversy, which had put the very doctrine of the Trinity at risk.² As the great emperor entered the hall, the air was not one of harmony, but of simmering tension. He saw men like Gregory of Nazianzus, a brilliant but frail theologian, who bore the weight of biblical truth with a heavy heart. He saw Meletius of Antioch, a powerful figure, who had been a source of division.³ He observed the Macedonian bishops, who arrived late in protest, their faces defiant, ready to challenge his very authority. Theodosius’s first act was not to decree, but to observe. He listened to the arguments, the impassioned speeches, and the subtle maneuvers of both sides of this momentous debate. This was not a battlefield to be won with swords, but a spiritual arena where the mind and the soul held sway.

In this article we will see how this second great council of the church further articulated and universally affirmed the doctrine of Trinity. This would provide a further basis for the advance of God’s Story of Grace where God’s image of a mutual and self-giving love to expand and be lived out on the earth. Further, as Rome would begin to fracture, the Church would become the new unifying center of civilization which would allow God’s image, reflected in the Trinity, to further transform civilization. Theodosius was the emperor who would, after Constantine, lay the ground work to make this possible.

The First Council of Constantinople

The Council of Constantinople was led by Miletus. When he died unexpectedly, Gregory of Nazianzus, who was recently installed as the bishop of Constantinople, was elected to preside. He spoke with fiery eloquence, defending the divinity of the Holy Spirit, in full equality with the Father and the Son. This had been an aspect of the Nicene Creed which was not addressed and still stirred fervent debate. But old rivalries ran deep. Gregory’s authority was challenged by a cabal of bishops who refused to be commanded by a theological rival. Exhausted and disheartened by the infighting, Gregory resigned. To replace Gregory, the council quickly installed Nectarius, a Roman official, who quickly became baptized in order to be the new bishop of Constantinople. Though lacking Gregory’s theological clout, Nectarius was a symbol of imperial favor and political stability.

In the end, it became clear that the work of the bishops was not to create a new document, but to expand upon the one formulated at Nicaea decades earlier. They condemned Arianism, but their most significant work was the clear articulation of the Holy Spirit’s divinity. The bishops, in need of a cohesive faith, arrived at a new consensus. The Constantinopolitan Creed, as it came to be known, was not merely a decree from an emperor but a statement of faith articulated by the Church itself. When the council concluded, Theodosius knew he had achieved his goal: the further strengthening and unification of the Church.

Major Outcomes

The divinity of the Holy Spirit is affirmed forever securing belief in the Trinity. In the original Nicene Creed of 325 reads:

We believe in one God, the Father almighty, Maker of heaven and earth,
and of all things visible and invisible.
And in one Lord Jesus Christ, the Son of God, the only-begotten,
begotten of the Father before all ages.
Light of Light, true God of true God, begotten not made,
of one essence with the Father by whom all things were made;
who for us men and for our salvation, came down from heaven,
and was incarnate of the Holy Spirit and the Virgin Mary
and became man.
And He was crucified for us under Pontus Pilate,
and suffered, and was buried.
And the third day He rose again, according to the Scriptures;
and ascended into heaven, and sits at the right hand of the Father;
and He shall come again with glory to judge the living and the dead;
whose Kingdom shall have no end.
And in the Holy Spirit.

Following the Second Ecumenical Council in Constantinople in 381, the Creed was further
supplemented with the following:

And we believe in the Holy Spirit, the Lord, the Giver of Life,
Who proceeds from the Father; who with the Father and the Son
together is worshipped and glorified; who spoke by the prophets.
In one Holy, Catholic,⁴ and Apostolic Church.
I acknowledge one baptism for the remission of sins.
I look for the resurrection of the dead, and the life
of the world to come.
Amen.

Theodosius expanded the unity of the Roman Empire with a deepening Christian commitments. This was vital as the Roman Empire would come under increasing attack from German tribes like the Visigoths, Ostrogoths, and Vandals, as well as the Huns. This ultimately created a domino effect of invasions and migrations as the political structure of Rome began to disintegrate, with the last emperor deposed in 479. It was Theodosius who consolidated the empire under the Council of Constantinople and would further push efforts to expand Christian reforms and policies that had begun under Constantine.⁵ Ironically, his reforms would provide a basis for Christianity to organically spread as the barbarian tribes came into contact with Rome. They converted to Christ, in part, because paganism had been forced into increasing decline.

The reign of Theodosius was not perfect by any measure. But in the expansion of God’s Story of Grace, his reforms and leadership led to the further realization of Revelation 11:15:

“The kingdom of the world has become
the kingdom of our Lord and of his Messiah,
and he will reign for ever and ever.”

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Nicene Christianity affirmed the Council of Nicaea’s declaration that Jesus Christ was “very God of very God,” meaning that he was co-substantial (of the same substance) with the Father, “begotten and not made.” This was distinct against Arianism which promoted the idea that Jesus Christ was a created being, less in than the Father.
The council did formally use the term Trinity, the council’s work was built upon the Council of Nicaea (325 AD), and together they confirmed the divinity of the Son and added the divinity of the Holy Spirit to the creed, affirming the Trinitarian view that is central to Christian orthodoxy today.
He served as the first president of the council but died shortly after the proceedings began. Meletius of Antioch (Greek: Μελέτιος, Meletios) was a Christian patriarch from Antioch from 360 until his death in 381. He was opposed by a rival bishop named Paulinus II and his ministry was dominated by the division and argument, usually called the Meletian schism. As a result, he was exiled from Antioch in 361–362, 365–366 and 371–378.
The term “Catholic” mean universal church and is not limited to the Roman Catholic Church. In fact, this creed and council favored the leaders and churches at Constantinople over the leaders and churches of Rome.
In some cases his reforms were too harsh against pagans, but in making the Empire more Christian, it provided an environment for missions and Christian philanthropy to spread.

Ambrose’s Struggle: Balancing Submission and Resistance to Government

**depiction of Ambrose and Constantine**

In 390 A.D., when Emperor Theodosius ordered the massacre of approximately 7,000 citizens in the city of Thessalonica, this set off a clash with Bishop Ambrose of Milan. This confrontation offers a profound challenge to a superficial reading of Romans 13:1–7, where Paul famously commands submission to governing authorities. Ambrose’s resolute defiance of the emperor illustrates a critical theological distinction: that the state’s authority, though divinely instituted, is not absolute and is subordinate to God’s moral law. The conflict over the massacre at Thessalonica forged a powerful precedent in the history of church and state, demonstrating that Christians have a duty to resist and rebuke state power when it oversteps its moral and spiritual bounds.

In this article, we will address where those categories overlap. In God’s Story of Grace, the church has now come to a new place of authority and prominence to further reshape the world in the trinitarian image: increased unity and diversity. In this article, we will understand the influence of the church in relation to the state.

The Biblical Basis for State Authority

Paul wrote to the early church living in the very center of authority in the Roman Empire. This provides one of the most significant biblical passages on the Christian relationship to the state. Here is how Paul addresses this topic:

¹Let everyone be subject to the governing authorities, for there is no authority except that which God has established. The authorities that exist have been established by God. ²Consequently, whoever rebels against the authority is rebelling against what God has instituted, and those who do so will bring judgment on themselves. ³For rulers hold no terror for those who do right, but for those who do wrong. Do you want to be free from fear of the one in authority? Then do what is right and you will be commended. ⁴For the one in authority is God’s servant for your good. But if you do wrong, be afraid, for rulers do not bear the sword for no reason. They are God’s servants, agents of wrath to bring punishment on the wrongdoer. ⁵Therefore, it is necessary to submit to the authorities, not only because of possible punishment but also as a matter of conscience.⁶This is also why you pay taxes, for the authorities are God’s servants, who give their full time to governing. ⁷Give to everyone what you owe them: If you owe taxes, pay taxes; if revenue, then revenue; if respect, then respect; if honor, then honor.

Let’s look at a basic breakdown of this passage:

Principle # 1: The state has a divine origin.

“Let everyone be subject to the governing authorities, for there is no authority except that which God has established” (Romans 13:1).

Paul grounds the state’s legitimacy in God’s providence, meaning that the institution of government is part of God’s plan for order in the world.

Principle # 2: The state bears authority as a servant of God.

“For rulers hold no terror for those who do right, but for those who do wrong… For he is God’s servant to do you good” (Romans 13:3–5).

The state’s purpose is to maintain civil order, restrain evil through punishment, and create an environment where the righteous can flourish. In this way, they are servants of God.

Principle # 3: The state is to be submitted to and honored as God’s servants.

Therefore, it is necessary to submit to the authorities, not only because of possible punishment but also as a matter of conscience. (Romans 13:5).

Paul asks Christians to obey the state not merely out of fear of retribution but out of a deeper moral commitment to God, who established the state. This includes fulfilling civic duties like paying taxes.

⁶This is also why you pay taxes, for the authorities are God’s servants, who give their full time to governing. ⁷Give to everyone what you owe them: If you owe taxes, pay taxes; if revenue, then revenue; if respect, then respect; if honor, then honor. (Romans 13:6–7)

These principles are solid for any age. But how this is applied to the church in the middle of the first century and the church at the end of the fourth century was considerably different. Before Constantine, the relationship between church and state was one of persecution, where Christianity was an illegal and often persecuted religion, with the state viewing it as a threat. After Constantine, the relationship transformed from persecution to tolerance and eventual state support, with the emperor becoming a key patron of the church, which gained political influence and began to intertwine with the state, a process that eventually led to Christianity becoming the official state religion.

Before and After Constantine

Before Constantine

Persecution: Christians were a persecuted minority, and the Roman state viewed Christianity as a threat to its traditional pagan order.
Illegal status: Christianity was an illegal religion for much of this period.
Lack of state support: The church did not receive state funding or special privileges and had to operate independently.

After Constantine

State patronage: Constantine ended the persecution of Christians and, through the Edict of Milan in 313 CE, granted Christianity legal toleration.
Increased power and influence: The church gained significant political power, temporal wealth, and influence it had never possessed before.
Official religion: The relationship evolved to the point where, within a century, Christianity became the official religion of the empire.
Instrument of unification: Emperors increasingly relied on the church as a tool to help unify the empire, especially as its unity and authority began to crumble.

The Clash Over the Thessalonica Massacre

When Bishop Ambrose learned of the atrocity at Thessalonica, he was appalled by the emperor’s indiscriminate slaughter. This act moved beyond the state’s God-given role as a minister of justice and became a horrific miscarriage of it. Ambrose did not respond with political rebellion or armed force. Instead, he employed the most powerful spiritual weapon of his office: excommunication.

He wrote a letter of rebuke and correction to the emperor. Theodosius ignored Ambrose’s letter and showed up at the church doors. The historian Sozomen described this encounter:

When he drew near the gates of the edifice, he was met by Ambrose, the bishop of the city, who took hold of him by his purple robe, and said to him, in the presence of the multitude, ‘Stand back! A man defiled by sin, and with hands imbrued in blood unjustly shed, is not worthy, without repentance, to enter within these sacred precincts, or partake of the holy mysteries.’ The emperor, struck with admiration at the boldness of the bishop, began to reflect on his own conduct, and, with much contrition, retraced his steps. It appears that it was for these and other acts of cruelty that Ambrose rebuked the emperor, forbade him to enter the church, and excommunicated him.

Theodosius, recognizing the gravity of his sin and the spiritual authority of the bishop, eventually submitted. The historian Sozomen, again, explains his response:

Theodosius publicly confessed his sin in the church, and during the time set apart for penance, refrained from wearing his imperial ornaments, according to the usage of mourners. He also enacted a law prohibiting the officers entrusted with the execution of the imperial mandates, from inflicting the punishment of death till thirty days after the mandate had been issued, in order that the wrath of the emperor might have time to be appeased, and that room might be made for the exercise of mercy and repentance.

As a result, he enacted a law requiring a 30-day waiting period between a death sentence and its execution to prevent future impulsive acts of violence.

Before Constantine, the church and state were in conflict, with Christianity being illegal and regularly persecuted, as the state saw it as a threat. After Constantine, this changed to tolerance and support, with the emperor becoming an important supporter of the church, which gained political power and began to connect with the state, ultimately leading to Christianity being declared the official state religion.

Reconciling Submission and Resistance

Ambrose’s actions were not a rejection of Romans 13 but a consistent honoring of it. It is important to keep in mind that Ambrose did in no way seek to overthrow the emperor but rather to hold him accountable to the higher moral authority of God. The conflict reveals several critical principles for reconciling submission and resistance:

Principle # 1: The state has a divine origin. Ambrose understood that the state has its ultimate authority to God and answers to God. As such, that authority is accountable to God who is its source and even judge.

Principle # 2: The state has authority as a servant of God. While the state has legitimate authority over the civil order as a servant of God; the church has prophetic authority to call out the state when it steps beyond its service.

Principle # 3: The state, as servants of God, is to be submitted to and honored. The key here is that the state is to be obeyed “as God’s servants.” The massacre at Thessalonica was an act of gross injustice. He has every justification as a leader of the church, who had the emperor’s ear, to confront this. Ambrose’s resistance was spiritual. He did not raise an army but instead used the moral and spiritual power of the church.

Conclusion

In essence, Ambrose’s resistance was not a rebellion against authority but a protest against the abuse of authority. His actions illustrate that the Christian duty of submission outlined in Romans 13 is not a passive acceptance of all state actions but a call to active, conscience-based engagement. When the state acts outside its divine mandate to uphold justice and order, a Christian, and particularly a church leader, when properly positioned, has the duty to challenge and rebuke it for the sake of a higher purposes of God’s Story of Grace, at work in the world.