How Alexander the Great Prepared the Advance Christianity (Daniel 8:1-21)

**Wall Painting of Alexander the Great**

Alexander the Great (356 BC – 323 BC) was a world historical force with “god-like” powers to shift the entire directions of nations and continents. In a period of 12 years he conquered the Persian Empire which spanned from Egypt to India and extended his conquests to cover approximately 2 million square miles. He achieved legendary victories in some of the most epic battles which displayed a tactical brilliance of extraordinary skill. As a result he spread the culture and language of the Greeks which would pave the way eventually for the Roman Empire and allow for the rapid advance of Christianity 300 years later. In this article and the next articles we will see how God, in His Story of Grace, used Alexander to expand civilization after the trinitarian image of bringing increased unity (the one) among the nations which carried with it the idea of individual freedom (the many). We will also see that Alexander’s record is tragically mixed.

In this article we will look at Alexander from the perspective of biblical prophecy in Daniel 8. We will understand that the large scale events of history and the world are under God’s hand to accomplish His Story of Grace.

Daniel’s Vision

Daniel received a prophecy regarding the overthrow of the Persian Empire and the advance of the Greek Empire around 553-554 B.C., approximately 200 years before it unfolded. The language is apocalyptic (which means to “unveil”). It opens up the curtain of what is seen so that we may peer beyond what we naturally see to understand bigger realities shaping world events. To do this it uses ideas and concepts we do understand to reveal concepts and ideas we do not as easily understand. Daniel is given the vision of a ram with two horns (representing Persia) and a goat with one horn between its eyes (representing Greece and the conquest of Alexander). The vision reads as follows:

¹In the third year of King Belshazzar’s reign, I, Daniel, had a vision, after the one that had already appeared to me. ²In my vision I saw myself in the citadel of Susa in the province of Elam; in the vision I was beside the Ulai Canal. ³I looked up, and there before me was a ram with two horns, standing beside the canal, and the horns were long. One of the horns was longer than the other but grew up later. ⁴I watched the ram as it charged toward the west and the north and the south. No animal could stand against it, and none could rescue from its power. It did as it pleased and became great.⁵As I was thinking about this, suddenly a goat with a prominent horn between its eyes came from the west, crossing the whole earth without touching the ground. ⁶It came toward the two-horned ram I had seen standing beside the canal and charged at it in great rage. ⁷I saw it attack the ram furiously, striking the ram and shattering its two horns. The ram was powerless to stand against it; the goat knocked it to the ground and trampled on it, and none could rescue the ram from its power. ⁸The goat became very great, but at the height of its power the large horn was broken off, and in its place four prominent horns grew up toward the four winds of heaven.

The vision is interpreted for Daniel by Gabriel the angel. The interpretation reads as follows:

¹⁵While I, Daniel, was watching the vision and trying to understand it, there before me stood one who looked like a man. ¹⁶And I heard a man’s voice from the Ulai calling, “Gabriel, tell this man the meaning of the vision.” ¹⁷As he came near the place where I was standing, I was terrified and fell prostrate. “Son of man,” he said to me, “understand that the vision concerns the time of the end.” ¹⁸While he was speaking to me, I was in a deep sleep, with my face to the ground. Then he touched me and raised me to my feet. ¹⁹He said: “I am going to tell you what will happen later in the time of wrath, because the vision concerns the appointed time of the end. ²⁰The two-horned ram that you saw represents the kings of Media and Persia. ²¹The shaggy goat is the king of Greece, and the large horn between its eyes is the first king.

These identifiers by Gabriel point to the fact that the Ram represents Media (elite rulers of Babylon) and Persia (who overtakes Media). There are, then, several ways this vision demonstrates the spiritual realities behind Alexander the Great and the advance of Greek culture.

Meaning # 1: Alexander’s Rapid Power

a goat with a prominent horn between its eyes came from the west, crossing the whole earth without touching the ground. (Daniel 8:5)

The Macedonians, from which Alexander came, were called “goat people.” Commentator Joseph Benson explains:

This is because, according to one report, their first king was commanded by the oracle to take the goats for his guides to empire. Afterward, seeing a herd of goats flying from a violent storm, he followed them to Edessa, and there fixed the seat of his empire, made the goats his ensigns, or standards, and called the city The Goats’ Town.

After 13 years he conquered an empire that stretched from the Balkans to northern India with his armies travelling some 20,000 miles. Through this he fought 20 major battles with no losses; he named 70 cities after himself, conquering an area spanning three continents covering approximately two million square miles.

Meaning # 2: Alexander’s Ruthless and Total Conquest

⁶It came toward the two-horned ram I had seen standing beside the canal and charged at it in great rage. ⁷I saw it attack the ram furiously, striking the ram and shattering its two horns. The ram was powerless to stand against it; the goat knocked it to the ground and trampled on it, and none could rescue the ram from its power. (Daniel 8:6-7)

When the vision describes “the goat knocked it to the ground and trampled in it,” this describes the ruthless and complete nature of the conquest over Persia. At the battle of Issus, Darius offered concessions of land for peace. Alexander wanted more than concessions; he wanted to be recognized as sole ruler of the Persian territories. Darius was unwilling, and so Alexander mercilessly crushed Persia. In the ensuing battle there are claims that the Greek army killed up to 100,000 in the battle. If this number is true, it would amounted to 200 to 300 men killed a minute for 8 hours. This one battle is illustrative of how this world conqueror brought a level of carnage and destruction which the world had never seen. Historical scholar of Greek antiquity, Victor Davis Hanson, estimates that his armies may, in all of their battles combined, have killed around 1,000,000.

Meaning # 3: Civil War and Division

The goat became very great, but at the height of its power the large horn was broken off, and in its place four prominent horns grew up toward the four winds of heaven. (Daniel 8:8)

At this great peak, Alexander’s life comes to a sudden end. This is represented in Daniel 8:8 as a “large horn was broken off.” How he died “at the height of his power,” with millions upon millions as his subjects, is uncertain. Some theories are infectious disease, poisoning, or alcoholism. The definitive cause(s) are not known. What is known is that he had no successor. This then led to an eruption of civil strife which led to the Wars of Diadochi (meaning successor). These wars lasted almost for half a century (roughly 322-275 BC) and involved multiple battles and alliances. The most prominent figures in the battles were Antigonus, Cassander, Ptolemy, and Seleucus. These are the four prominent horns in Daniel 8:8. That they grew up toward the four winds of heaven means they eventually carved out their own kingdoms in what became known as the Hellenistic period. (The word “Hellen” means Greek.) This division resulted in the formation of separate powerful and independent kingdoms:

Ptolemaic Kingdom: Ptolemy established control over Egypt and its surrounding territories.

Seleucid Empire: Seleucus took control of the eastern regions, including Persia and Mesopotamia.

Antigonid Kingdom: Antigonus and later his descendants ruled over Macedonia and Greece.

Other: Lysimachus controlled part of Asia Minor and Cassander controlled part of Greece which Antigonus did not.

This is described in a later chapter of Daniel, as well:

³Then a mighty king will arise, who will rule with great power and do as he pleases. ⁴After he has arisen, his empire will be broken up and parceled out toward the four winds of heaven. It will not go to his descendants, nor will it have the power he exercised, because his empire will be uprooted and given to others. (Daniel 11:3-4)

A Monumental Shift in Civilization

We will look at the negative implications of Alexander’s conquests in a later article. Yet, the fact is that God used Alexander the Great to prepare the way for advancing His Story of Grace.

Greek Language: Because of Alexander the Great, the Greek language became the common or business language from Egypt to India. Each territory had its own native language, but each one learned to speak Greek. This allowed for rapid communication since the world was able to speak a common tongue. It is for this reason that over 300 years later after Alexander the 27 books of the New Testament was penned in Greek. Everyone could read this and have access to the New Testament letters.

Greek Culture: Not only was there the spread of Greek language, but there was also the spread of art, architecture, philosophy, and political ideas across a vast area. Greek culture did not replace existing cultures but blended with them. This was monumental because it was the first time in which there was a international blending of one culture into many different ones. A result of this is that in many ways Christianity became a blend of Jewish and Greek cultures. Because of the migration of Greek culture to the East, it would forever shape Christian thinking and practice. This is seen first and foremost in the doctrine of Logos (John 1:1) which would lead to our understanding of the Trinity, with the Son at the eternal Logos of the Father.

Other: The spread of Greek culture made possible by Alexander had impacts on political structures, art, architecture, travel, commerce, science and medicine. These would lay a foundation for the growth of what would become the Roman Empire.

Conclusion

What is most noteworthy was that Daniel prophesied the advance of Alexander and the spread of Hellenism. Daniel did not use the name (Alexander) or the term (Hellenism). This was beyond the scope of his prophesy. His purpose was not to focus on the seen realities but to address the unseen spiritual realities behind the seen ones. As Daniel write earlier in his book:

He changes times and seasons;
he deposes kings and raises up others.
He gives wisdom to the wise
and knowledge to the discerning. (Daniel 2:21)

Aristotle, Eudaimonia and Shalom: The Ultimate Guide to Ethics

In this third and final article on the influence of Aristotle, we will see that the great philosopher significantly contributed to God’s Story of Grace by introducing what is called virtue ethics. Virtue ethics emphasizes the development of moral character (virtues) through repeated behaviors to cultivate a life which advances human flourishing. Aristotle was not really concerned with laying down strict rules for moral choices or considering the best outcomes of actions; rather he wanted ethics to focus on how an individual’s character leads to virtue creating a life of blessedness (similar to the beatitudes of Jesus in Matthew 5:3-10). We will consider, then, the unique contribution of Aristotle’s thought on ethics and how it shaped the world’s understanding and experience of moral development. We will tie this into how virtue ethics enriches our understanding of Christian discipleship.

What Is the Ultimate Purpose of Ethics?

Eudaimonia the Goal

The ultimate aim of ethics can be summed up in the word: eudaimonia. This is a Greek term first used by Aristotle in the context of philosophy. The word carries the idea of “flourishing.” Sometimes the word is translated “happiness” or “well-being.” When translated “happiness” it does not refer to a temporary state of good feelings; it rather describes a life that is lived well that brings a growing experience of moral satisfaction–fulfillment. This is the “good life,” and in the ethical sense there is no other end or higher purpose beyond it. Thus, this eudaimonia, in Aristotle’s thinking, is the proper aim or goal of all human action. He describes this as follows in his work, Nicomachen Ethics:

Now happiness, more than anything else, seems complete without qualification. For we always choose it because of itself, never because of something else. Honor, pleasure, understanding, and every virtue we certainly choose because of themselves, since we would choose each of them even if it had no further result; but we also choose them for the sake of happiness, supposing that through them we shall be happy. Happiness, by contrast, no one ever chooses for their sake, or for the sake of anything else at all.

Virtue the Means

But how does one gain this human flourishing? Aristotle makes the case that this is by the cultivation and exercise of virtue. Again from Nichomachean Ethics: “…the human good proves to be activity of the soul in accord with virtue…” What is meant by this activity of the soul is that virtue is attained by the ongoing practice of virtuous acts. He further explains, “We become just by doing just actions, temperate by doing temperate actions, brave by doing brave actions.” After the virtues have become a habit (a normal behavior) through practice, they bring a transformation of character. This character can be defined as to who we really are and how we are really inclined to act. It has been more popularly expressed as who we are when no one is looking. For Aristotle virtue is not a rote habit but something deeper in the soul. It is a trained habit of soul which guides our moral compass where our choices will shape the outcome of our life. A modern expression of Aristotelian thinking goes as follows:

Thoughts Become Words, 
Words Become Actions, 
Actions Become Habits, 
Habits Become Character, 
Character Becomes Your Destiny.

The Golden Means

A central concept in Aristotle’s thinking is the golden means. Virtue is not only right action flowing from habits that develop into character; it also entails a wisdom of deciding the right action from situation to situation. This means that virtue, as Aristotle explains, “is a mean between two vices [golden means], one of excess and one of deficiency.” Author and teacher, Brett Kunkle, provides the following elaboration and helpful chart:

The mean balances virtue between two extremes. For instance, when we examine the virtue of courage we come to see that it is balanced between the appropriate feelings of fear and confidence. Too much confidence leads to rash action, yet too much fear leads to cowardice. The individual who has attained the virtue of courage avoids both vices when he experiences the appropriate amount of fear or confidence in a particular situation.

Activity	Vice—Deficiency	Virtue—Mean	Vice—Excess
Facing loss or death	Cowardice	Courage	Rashness
Bodily appetites or pleasures	Insensibility	Temperance	Intemperance
Giving money	Stinginess	Generosity	Extravagance
Retribution for wrong	Injustice	Justice	Revenge

Examples of virtues and their corresponding vices in excess and deficiency.

By using the golden means Aristotle is not prescribing general rules, but rather a guiding principle. The guide is grounded in a wisdom which has developed the ability to choose the right action in specific cases.

Humanities teacher, Brett Saunders, provides this illustration:

Suppose I am shopping with my daughter and she is affronted by some fellow. The “right” intervention, according to Aristotle, falls between cowardice and recklessness, perhaps as a mix of cautious de-escalation and definitive show of strength. What the mean looks like for a specific act depends on the circumstances—why, how, with whom, and how much the agent acts, as well as who the agent is. Considering these variables and hitting the mean with regard to, for instance, the time of day, absence of other shoppers, appearance and manner of my daughter’s accoster, proximity or absence of security personnel— this belongs to the virtue of prudence. As a sort of keystone virtue, prudence stands out from others (self-control, justice, friendship, etc) because it is the capacity for considering the variables and determining the “mean” act (not too late or soon, not too bold and timid, not too abrasive or deferential) in the proper amount of time. Prudence is the knack of taking the right amount of time to decide on the right action.

The Lasting Legacy of Aristotle’s Ethics

A lasting influence on education.

Aristotle grounded ethics in the ideas of human flourishing and virtue. This was quite substantial for the influence of Western Civilization which emphasized the formation of character development in education. If virtue is not emphasized at the youngest age, then it is impossible to have a virtuous society. To bring about virtue in youth, Aristotle emphasized (what is another Greek term) paideia. This word means “child” but it became the shorthand for the training and education of children which cultivates virtue. Paidea had four emphases:

Stories. There was a focus on the action of heroes to deeply impress the imaginations of the young. Literature was a key facet of paideia because it forms the heart with its deepest desires, values, and loyalties.
Music. This was an influence carried over to Aristotle from Aristotle’s teacher, Plato. Plato focused attention on music “because rhythm and harmony most of all insinuate themselves in to the inmost part of the soul and most vigorously lay hold of it in bringing grace with them.”
Gymnastics. Gymnastics largely meant physical training to the Greeks. The physical training refined the whole person: intellect, imagination, sensibilities and the body.
Imitation. The Greek term used for this is mimesis (where we get our word mimic). Aristotle saw this as the soul’s imitation of the pattern from another human being. More simply put is was about having proper role models.

A lasting influence on ethics.

After Aristotle, society could begin to think in richer ways about the goals of being a community or to live together as a human family. From Persia, the world saw the spread of the empire, which did allow for the protection of certain religious and cultural freedoms. From the earlier Greeks (e.g. Cleisthenes), the world saw the introduction of democracy and ways for it to be practiced. But the deeper question for Aristotle was what are these different forms of government for? He would answer eudaimonia or human flourishing. The idea is not to have any ideal form of government (democracy, empire, etc.), but to understand that the role of government is to promote human flourishing or moral happiness. In the Old Testament a somewhat equivalent term for eudaimonia is shalom. Shalom in Hebrew means “wholeness” or “well-being.” These are both concepts that describe a life of flourishing or a life lived as it is meant to be. Theologian Cornelius Plantinga beautifully captures the meaning of shalom:

The webbing together of God, humans, and all creation in justice, fulfillment, and delight is what the Hebrew prophets call shalom. We call it peace, but it means far more than mere peace of mind or a cease-fire between enemies. In the Bible, shalom means universal flourishing, wholeness, and delight…. Shalom, in other words, is the way things ought to be.

So, in Aristotelian and biblical thinking the political form of government we adopt is a mean toward an ends: eudaimonia or shalom. The Declaration of Independence reflects this thinking in the phrase “the pursuit of happiness.” The goal of politics is to develop societies where virtue is taught and practiced and the interest of the whole can be balanced with personal freedom for increased flourishing. (This is the trinitarian model which sees flourishing as a balance of the one and the many.)

A lasting influence on Christianity

The biblical call to discipleship is centered around developing the character of our lives to become like Christ. Paul expresses it very simply: “…train yourself to be godly.” (1 Timothy 4:7) Though Christianity did not derive its understanding of discipleship from the Greeks, the ways of Jesus reflect some of what Aristotle taught. For after all, Aristotle did not invent the pursuit of virtue but discovered its reality. Repeatedly the Bible refers to how our circumstances are training us to walk in Christ-like maturity (virtue):

²Consider it pure joy, my brothers and sisters, whenever you face trials of many kinds, ³because you know that the testing of your faith produces perseverance. ⁴Let perseverance finish its work so that you may be mature and complete, not lacking anything. (James 1:2-4)

Again…

²⁸And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him, who have been called according to his purpose. ²⁹For those God foreknew he also predestined to be conformed to the image of his Son… (Romans 8:28-29)

Summary

There are many more scriptures which could be listed. But let’s close with a statement from C.S. Lewis, in his essay “The Weight of Glory” as he explains that biblical ethics is not simply about obeying raw commands, but they are geared toward the formation of positive blessing or eudaimonia:

If you asked twenty good men today what they thought the highest of the virtues, nineteen of them would reply, Unselfishness. But if you had asked almost any of the great Christians of old, he would have replied, Love. You see what has happened? A negative term has been substituted for a positive…. The negative idea of Unselfishness carries with it the suggestion not primarily of securing good things for others, but of going without them ourselves, as if our abstinence and not their happiness was the important point. I do not think this is the Christian virtue of Love. The New Testament has lots to say about self-denial, but not about self-denial as an end in itself. We are told to deny ourselves and to take up our crosses in order that we may follow Christ; and nearly every description of what we shall ultimately find if we do so contains an appeal to desire.