The Twelve Tables of Rome and the Forming of the Republic (1Timothy 2:1-4)

The Twelve Tables were Rome’s first written law code, finalized in 449 B.C. Inscribed on 12 bronze tablets, they were displayed publicly, making the laws accessible to all citizens. They did not come from the mind of one brilliant or powerful leader, like the Code of Hammurabi; they were forged out of the conflict of the common people (plebs) seeking greater representation in the government against the aristocrats (patricians), who had the majority of power. The Twelve Tables were designed to address the power disparity by overcoming arbitrary rule of the elite and wealthy and fostering transparency in Roman law. These laws would go on to have a fundamental influence shaping the development of greater equality across the classes. This was a monumental development in God’s Story of Grace in shaping society in the image of the Trinity: increasing the balance of unity (oneness) with respect for personal rights (diversity) between the patricians and plebs.¹ Through time The Twelve Tables would serve as a new standard in the advance of law.

In the article we will look at the advance of God’s Story of Grace in using The Twelve Tables of Roman Law as a means to provide greater equality and dignity in the world.

A Short History of the Struggle Between the Plebs and Patricians

According to tradition, Rome began as a small settlement of tribes in 753 BC. Evidence suggests there was a unification of these diverse tribes around 600 BC, marking the establishment of Rome as a true city-state. It ultimately became a republic (governed by elected representatives) in 509 BC.²The significant problem is that the elected representatives could only be drawn from the wealthiest land owners (patricians). They would place increasing taxes on the people without increasing services or benefits. Many plebs were under crushing debt due to the taxation. In 494 BC the plebs threatened to leave Rome which would have grinded the city to a halt, as the plebeians were Rome’s labor force. Led by Lucius Vellutus, large numbers of them walked out of the city and congregated on the Mons Sacer (“sacred mountain”) while Vellutus and others negotiated with the patricians. This walk out was an rousing success, resulting in the forgiveness of many plebs’ debts and the creation of the Tribune of the Plebs (an official in ancient Rome chosen by the plebs to protect their interests). This Tribune was the first government position to be occupied by a member of the plebeian class and allowed them to elect their own representative.

Though this provided an improvement, it hardly addressed all of the inequities in the power imbalance. Eventually the common people demanded to have written codes which could be known by everyone and not just patrician elite. Around 450 BC, a board of “Ten Men” were appointed to draw up the first ten tables. According to Livy, they sent an embassy to Greece to study the legislative system of Athens, specifically the works of Solon. Later, in that same year, the second group of “Ten Men” started to work on the last two tables. These were completed in 449 BC. But to get the representatives to move on it, the working class needed to secede, again, to force consideration of the adoption of The Twelve Tables. It worked! The Twelve Tables were formally made law in Rome. They were inscribed on bronze and posted publicly so all Romans could read and know them. This provided a more defined legal system, ensuring that citizens could understand their rights and responsibilities.

Summary Of the Twelve Tables

Table 1: Procedure for Courts and Trials	It outlined procedures for legal proceedings, including the right of citizens to raise complaints in court and have their testimonies heard. It established rules regarding summoning someone to court, the behavior of both the plaintiff and defendant, and the process of settling disputes.
Table 2: Process for Initiating a Trial	It outlined the amount of deposit required based on the value of the disputed property or the freedom of a person. It covered situations where a trial could be postponed, such as illness or a day appointed for a case with an alien. Furthermore, it addressed the obligation of parties to provide evidence by shouting before the witness’s doorway every third day.
Table 3: Debt	This included a grace period for payment and the ability of creditors to take action against debtors. It outlined the process for enforcing debt obligations, including the seizure of a debtor’s person and the conditions for their imprisonment and treatment while in the creditor’s custody.
Table 4: Rights of Familial Heads	This focused on family rights and responsibilities, particularly those of the father or head of household.
Table 5: Estates & Guardianship	It established that women, even those of full age, should remain under the guardianship of a male relative, with the exception of Vestal Virgins. The table also outlined provisions for inheritance, including what happens when someone dies without a direct heir and who would inherit their possessions.
Table 6: Ownership and Possession	It focused on how someone acquired legal ownership of property, including through formal sale and bond, and through acquisition by prescription after a certain period of possession.
Table 7: Land Rights and Crimes	It covered various aspects of property ownership, including inheritance and regulations related to land use, like boundary disputes, road maintenance, and property ownership, including the right to remove trees that blew onto one’s property and the ownership of fruit falling onto a neighbor’s land.
Table 8: Legal Violations	It dealt with laws related to legal violations, specifically addressing injuries to persons and property. It included provisions for penalties for breaking bones, causing simple harm, and animal-related damages. It covered the rules for inheritance when a Roman citizen-freedman died. .
Table 9: Citizenship	It primarily focused on public law, particularly concerning the right to life, death, and citizenship. It prohibited laws from being passed regarding the person of a citizen except by the highest assembly and through those listed on the citizenry rolls. A key provision was that a judge or arbitrator convicted of taking a bribe would be punished capitally. It also prohibited the execution of anyone who had not been convicted in court.
Table 10: Burial	It dealt primarily with religious practices and burial customs. Specifically, it prohibited women from certain behaviors during funerals (like lacerating their faces or crying out loudly), and it stipulated that burials and cremations should not take place within the city walls
Table 11: Marriage	It related primarily with marriage laws. Specifically, it prohibited marriage between patricians and plebeians. It also addressed issues related to inheritance and the role of guardians, particularly for women.
Table 12: Damages	It dealt with the topic of binding into law. Specifically, it addressed situations where a slave committed theft or damage with the knowledge of their master. In such cases, the action for damages would be filed in the slave’s name.

Influence Of the Twelve Tables

Lex Hortensia

The Twelve Tables paved the way for the Lex Hortensia in 287 BC which granted the plebeian class the same legal power as the patricians. They gained the right to marry patricians, participate in the assemblies (gathering of citizens to influence government), and even hold high-ranking positions in the Republic. This made the representative government of the Roman republic more inclusive.

Christianity and the Roman Legal System

The Twelve Tables, of course, came well before Christianity; however, Roman law, including the idea of written legal codes, helped create an environment in which Christianity spread and eventually interacted with and influenced the evolution of Roman legal thought. This was a big advance in God’s Story of Grace. For this reason Paul encouraged Timothy to pray:

¹I urge, then, first of all, that petitions, prayers, intercession and thanksgiving be made for all people— ²for kings and all those in authority, that we may live peaceful and quiet lives in all godliness and holiness. ³This is good, and pleases God our Savior, ⁴who wants all people to be saved and to come to a knowledge of the truth. (1 Timothy 2:1-4)

The Roman legal systems helped toward this end in protecting Christians which is seen many places in the Book of Acts with Paul:

Paul invoked his Roman citizenship to avoid beating and unfair treatment in Philippi. (Acts 16:37)
Roman troops protected Paul against a mob. (Acts 23:10)
He demanded a fair trial in Jerusalem and Caesarea. (Acts 23:35).
Paul exercised his right as a Roman citizen to appeal to the emperor in Rome, which ultimately led to his journey to Rome. (Acts 25:10-12)

Modern Times

The Twelve Tables, in the tradition of the Code of Hammurabi³and the Mosaic Law,⁴ would be the very early forerunner to such landmark writings as the Magna Carta (1215) and Bill of Rights (1791). It would set a new standard for:

Codified Legal System:. The Twelve Tables represented a shift from customary law based on tradition to a written legal code to providing a structured framework for the application of justice for all citizens.
Equality Before the Law:. While not perfect, the Twelve Tables established a greater degree of equality before the law for both patricians and plebeians, ensuring that laws were applied regardless of social standing.
Public Access to Law:. The Twelve Tables were publicly displayed, making them accessible to all citizens, increasing transparency and accountability in the legal system.

As a legal code, The Twelve Tables were imperfect, but in the historical development in God’s Story of Grace, it established a tremendous march forward to shaping society and culture in the greater image of the Trinity–great unity (oneness) within diversity (threeness).

_____________________________________________________

The descriptions of “oneness” and “diversity” reflect the reality of the triune God who is ONE (a unified whole) consisting of THREE (three distinct persons). Human relations on a large to a smaller scale are demonstrating health to the degree that they reflect the Trinity.
The people of Rome, initially governed by Etruscan monarchs, decided to replace the monarchy with a representative citizen-led government (republican).
The Twelve Tables grew out of a long conflict between the plebs and the patricians. In contrast, the Code of Hammurabi was developed from the mind of one king. He claimed to receive it from divine authority–the sun god, Shamash.
In contrast with the Twelve Tables, which were placed publicly for all to see, the two tablets inscribed with the Ten Commandments were sealed in the Ark of the Covenant, which was never opened. The Ten Commandments were given in history but did not arise from history, as they were given by Yahweh to Moses on Mt. Sinai.

What the Story of Grace Is All About: An Excursus on Colossians 1:15–20

The Story of Grace, as a theological project, highlights how God reveals Himself through creation and redemption. The Triune God—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—unfolds a tale of love, inviting all things into communion with Him. This story is more than just history; it shows a purpose, supporting Jonathan Edwards’s idea that “the great end of all God’s works is the glory of God,” seen in the ongoing redemption of creation. Within this narrative, divine grace and human actions connect, emphasizing the need for faith and obedience in accepting God’s call. The various stories that emerge showcase different aspects of grace, linking to our own challenges and victories. By understanding grace, we see not only the larger story of redemption but also our roles in this divine journey, deepening our understanding of our relationships with God and one another.

Started in June 2023, this project explores early religion and the idea of divine economy (oikonomia) as explained by Irenaeus of Lyons, who viewed Christ’s redemptive work as a “recapitulation” (anakephalaiosis) of all creation, reversing Adam’s fall and restoring harmony in the Trinitarian life. Central to this is the early Christian hymn from Colossians 1:15–20, which Paul uses to declare Christ’s cosmic authority, interweaving protology (origins), soteriology (salvation), and eschatology (ultimate ends) into a unified tapestry of grace that shows the unity and diversity of God.

This hymn, resonant with the Wisdom traditions of Proverbs 8 and the Logos theology of John 1, declares:

¹⁵The Son is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation. ¹⁶For in him all things were created: things in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or powers or rulers or authorities; all things have been created through him and for him. ¹⁷He is before all things, and in him all things hold together. ¹⁸And he is the head of the body, the church; he is the beginning and the firstborn from among the dead, so that in everything he might have the supremacy. ¹⁹For God was pleased to have all his fullness dwell in him, ²⁰and through him to reconcile to himself all things, whether things on earth or things in heaven, by making peace through his blood, shed on the cross. (Colossians 1:15-20)

In this passage, the apostle presents a Trinitarian story where the Son, as the image of the Father, conveys the Father’s creative command and the Spirit’s life-giving presence, promoting shalom—a complete flourishing that looks forward to the new creation mentioned in Isaiah 65:17–25 and Revelation 21:1–5. This story highlights the deep connection between the three divine persons: they are united without losing their individuality, as Tertullian explained in Against Praxeas, describing the Trinity as “three persons, one substance,” distinct in their roles but unified in essence.

The implications for eschatology are significant: the Story of Grace ends with the idea that “God may be all in all” (1 Corinthians 15:28), a universal healing that mends the brokenness of sin and turns conflict into a harmonious unity that reflects the nature of the Trinity.

Three Truths of Story of Grace

Truth # 1: In God’s Story Jesus is Creator and Redeemer of all creation.

The Son is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation…And he is the head of the body, the church; he is the beginning and the firstborn from among the dead, so that in everything he might have the supremacy. (Colossians 1:15, 18)

Transcendence (God Above All) and Immanence (God Within All)

The term prōtotokos (firstborn) when referring to Christ highlights His unique position, not just in time but in essence. According to Karl Barth in Church Dogmatics (IV/1), Jesus is both the Creator and Redeemer, connecting the eternal with the present world.

Being the firstborn signifies not only Christ’s authority over all creation, similar to the “thrones or dominions” noted in Colossians 1:16, but also emphasizes His intimate relationship with all creation, filling it with divine life. This idea connects to Boethius’s view of eternity as “the simultaneous and complete possession of infinite life” in The Consolation of Philosophy, where eternity meets time through Christ’s life, making the invisible God (theos aoratos) truly present in our world. This dual nature of Christ also points to future renewal, as Athanasius mentions in On the Incarnation, “He became what we are that He might make us what He is,” meaning that humanity and creation are invited to share in God’s glory.

Romans 8:19–21 describes creation’s struggle as it waits for freedom from decay, leading to the “freedom of the glory of the children of God,” with Christ referred to as the “firstborn among many brothers and sisters” (Romans 8:29). Therefore, the resurrection starts a new age, where, as Jürgen Moltmann writes in The Coming of God, Christ brings about a “new creation” that redeems both people’s souls and the material world, suggesting a renewed environment filled with grace where decay gives way to lasting life.

Truth # 2: In God’s Story everything is being renewed into the likeness of the Trinity.

For in him all things were created: things in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or powers or rulers or authorities; all things have been created through him and for him. (Colossians 1:16)

Reciprocating Love From the Trinity

The prepositions “through” (dia) and “for” (eis) Christ describe a relationship based on the mutual love within the Trinity, where creation comes from the Father’s generous love for the Son, and is brought to life by the Spirit. As Charles Spurgeon said, “just as they are united in creation, they are united in salvation, working together as one God for our salvation.”

This reflects the harmonious unity and diversity of the Godhead, which Herman Bavinck refers to as the “archetype of man” and all creation, where “unity and diversity coexist without harming each other.“

Philosophically, this relates to Hegel’s concept of thesis-antithesis-synthesis, but reinterpreted in Christian terms as a peaceful harmony, where diversity enhances unity without conflict. Biblically, Ephesians 1:9–10 supports this idea: God “made known to us the mystery of his will… to unite all things in him, things in heaven and things on earth,” showing a Trinitarian coming together that opposes chaos with abundant life, as seen in Genesis 1’s repeated mentions of “all” and “every,” symbolizing God’s overflowing creativity (with 87 million species estimated today). In the future, this suggests a fulfilled order in Revelation 22:1–5, where the river of life flows from God’s throne and the Lamb, nurturing a restored creation in lasting communion, free from the curse (Genesis 3:17–19).

Truth # 3: In God’s Story redemption and renewal is universal in scope.

For God was pleased to have all his fullness dwell in him,and through him to reconcile to himself all things, whether things on earth or things in heaven, by making peace through his blood, shed on the cross. (Colossians 1:19-20)

The plērōma (fullness) that lives in Christ represents the complete nature of God (Colossians 2:9). It brings about a cosmic apokatallassō (reconciliation), as Irenaeus’s theory suggests: Christ “summed up all things in Himself,” restoring the broken universe.

This wide-reaching scope—covering “all things” (ta panta)—challenges ideas that focus only on humans for salvation, extending even to the suffering creation (Romans 8:22). John Piper emphasizes that “Jesus isn’t just the means. He is the great end,” the purpose of history.

Theologically, this connects with Augustine’s City of God, where grace changes selfishness into love for others, reflecting the Trinity’s unity (John 17:21–23). Looking to the future, Hebrews 1:2–3 describes Christ as heir and supporter, whose cleansing work points to the “world to come” (Hebrews 2:5), a renewed universe where “the wolf shall dwell with the lamb” (Isaiah 11:6), suggesting the end of harmful structures and the establishment of peace.

Implications of the Scope of God’s Story of Grace

First, God’s Story unfolds through salvation history. This means that God reveals Himself slowly over time, as Edwards suggests, allowing people to understand gradually without being overwhelmed. This helps them grow spiritually towards the ultimate vision. The story of Israel—from slavery in Egypt to freedom (Exodus 19–20), judges to kings (1 Samuel 8–2 Samuel 7), and exile to recovery (Ezra 1–6)—shows God’s qualities: grace, greatness, and loyalty. It all leads to Christ, who says, “Whoever has seen me has seen the Father” (John 14:9). This history points to the end times, where people can see God’s ultimate glory (1 John 3:2).

Secondly, God’s Story unfolds through the nations. Acts 17:26–27 tells us that God sets times and places “that they should seek God,” guiding cultural strengths towards a reflection of God’s nature. For example, Athenian democracy, developed from its unique conditions, sports, and theater, encourages unity in diversity, which is further enhanced by the inclusive values of Christianity (Galatians 3:28). This idea comes together in Revelation 7:9–10, portraying a diverse group worshiping Jesus, fulfilling God’s promise to Abraham (Genesis 12:3) in a beautiful diversity.

Third, God’s Story touches all cultural expressions. Language, stories, ideas, social connections, and artifacts can all be used for divine purposes. For instance, the Phoenician alphabet and papyrus allowed the creation of the Hebrew Scriptures, with “Bible” coming from Byblos, showing God’s guiding hand in history. In the end, this hints at a renewed way of understanding in the new Jerusalem, where “the leaves of the tree are for the healing of the nations” (Revelation 22:2), turning cultural creations into tools for eternal connection.

Conclusion

This project, developed over thirty years and starting in 2023, aims to understand God’s redemptive influence, bringing joy to life within the Trinitarian story. Just as Edwards’s unfinished work inspires modern extensions like Gerald McDermott’s A New History of Redemption, the Spirit—seen in Colossians 1:8–9—enables participation in divine glory (John 17:5). In this Story of Grace, the unity and diversity of creation reflect the Trinity, moving toward a future where all is made new, continuously echoing the Father’s love through the Son in the Spirit.

The Bible Behind Your Bible (The Codex Sinaiticus)

The most important development to emerge as a result of the Alexandrian Library is the creation of the codex of the New Testament. A codex is the earliest form of a book. The earliest codices (plural for codex) we have come from Alexandria due to the importance the city placed upon books (collections of manuscripts). In fact, the oldest copy of the entire New Testament is the Codex Sinaiticus, which came from the Sinai of Egypt and likely originated from Alexandria. The Codex Sinaiticus, also called the Sinai Bible, is an early fourth-century collection of bound manuscripts, containing the majority of the Greek Old Testament (Septuagint) and all of the New Testament (also the letters of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas). This codex laid hidden from the world in a remote monastery in Egypt, near Mount Sinai, from the fourth century until the mid-nineteenth century (nearly 1500 years), when it was discovered by a German New Testament scholar, Constantine von Tischendorf. This codex is a part of a family of approximately 30 New Testament texts originating from this region (Egypt) and time (4th century). These are called the Alexandrian Texts and are considered among the oldest and most reliable for understanding the original New Testament manuscripts.^₁

They will summon peoples to the mountain
and there offer the sacrifices of the righteous;
they will feast on the abundance of the seas,
on the treasures hidden in the sand.
Deuteronomy 33:19

With a number of factors which could not have been planned or predicted, God has preserved His Word and provided overwhelming authentication of its preservation. The Sinai Bible, along with the other Alexandrian Texts, provides another layer of confirmation and evidence of the authenticity and reliability of the Bible. In this article we will examine the influence of the Codex Sinaiticus, its relationship to the Library at Alexandria, and how it reinforces the authenticity of the New Testament.

The Codex Revolution

What is a codex?

As previously stated, the codex is the ancestor or earliest form of the modern book. The word “codex” comes from the Latin word meaning “trunk of a tree,” “block of wood” or “book.” It basically consisted of individual sheets of papyrus (made from a plant) or vellum (made of animal skins) which were folded and bound together. These were grouped into sections, and then the sections were stitched or bound along one edge, often with a cover to protect the assembled pages.

How did the codex shape Christianity?

Before the codex the common form of writing was the scroll where ink was set down on a roll of papyrus and parchment. When the codex was introduced, it quickly replaced the scroll so that by the 400’s in Egypt, the codex outnumbered the scroll by ten to one. Egypt was front and center for the popularization of the codex because of its rich tradition and expertise in copying from Alexandria. Since there was a significant and influential Christian population in Alexandria, the New Testament and Old Testament became the frontrunners in codex revolution. This new format of collecting writings shaped Christianity in four key ways:

1. It helped to develop the canon. Canon is the term referred to as the books which would be included in the Bible. The codex, with its ability to contain multiple works, encouraged the inclusion of certain writings and the exclusion of others. Over time this process helped to solidify the core writings that would become the twenty-seven books of the New Testament. This provided an authoritative and shared foundation for Christian belief.

2. It strengthened the spread of Christian communities. The codex was more durable and could be more easily transported than scrolls. The papyrus manuscripts would often last for only decades. The codices had a much greater durability, lasting in tact for centuries. They became tools of resilience, ensuring that the scriptures survived, and providing greater accessibility across geographical locations.

3. It made the teaching and practice of scripture more practical. This innovation of the codex meant that Christians could carry their scriptures with them and study them more easily. Gatherings often centered on the reading and interpretation of scripture, with passages recited aloud for the benefit of those who could not read. This accessibility fostered a new way of engagement.

4. It helped shape a new forward looking identity. The codex was not merely a technological advancement. In a world where scrolls were associated with Judaism, Greco-Roman literature, and civic records, the codex marked a departure from tradition. It became a visual and practical representation of Christianity’s newness—a movement that was not bound by the conventions of the past. By embracing this revolutionary format, Christians demonstrated their adaptability.

The Role of Scribes

**A Salvaged Page from**
**the Codex Sinaiticus**

The transition from scrolls to codices would have been impossible without the tireless efforts of scribes, also known as copyists. The Jewish scribe did the arduous work of copying new manuscripts of the Old Testament. This was a vital profession for the preservation and transmission of the Old Testament ensuring that sacred texts were transmitted faithfully from one generation to the next. Early Christianity inherited this reverence for scribal work from the Jews and the copyists at the Alexandrian Library, as well. A new sense of urgency was added as the apostles’ writings and the gospels needed to be copied, circulated, and preserved as the church expanded across the Roman Empire. For this reason these scribes and copyists occupied a central role in the production and transmission of early Christian texts. Their work often required extraordinary precision and skill; yet it was seen as a sacred service to God and the community of believers.

Codex Sinaiticus and the Reliability Of the New Testament

The discovery of the Codex Sinaiticus provides another layer of evidence to validate the authenticity of the New Testament–that the New Testament writings we have today faithfully represent the original writings. Yet, there are several questions people naturally ask. Let’s address some:

What about the time gap? If the Codex Sinaiticus is the earliest copy of the entire New Testament that we have, and it was written about 300 years later than the originals, how can we trust that it is reliable? When you consider the time gap by ancient standards, the New Testament is remarkably brief. This is especially the case given that we have a section of the Gospel of John (John Ryland Papyrus) written about 40 years after the original writing. Below is a comparison of the New Testament and other ancient writings:

Work	Date Written	Earliest Copies	Time Gap
Homer’s Illiad	800 BC	BC 400	400 Years
Herodotus History	480-425 BC	AD 1000	1350 Years
Plato Tetralogies	400 BC	AD 895	1300 Years
Caesar Gallic Wars	100-44 BC	AD 800	950 Years
Tacitus Annals	AD 100	AD 850	750 Years
Greek NT (John Ryland Papyrus)	AD 40-90	AD 130	40 Years

Comparison of Time-Gap of New Testament
with Other Ancient Writings

In addition, there was a rapid copying of texts which gives us so many to compare. As disciples and churches rapidly grew, there was an increasing need to make copies of the letters to be read. This is why, as already stated, that the skills of the copyists were in such high demand. Because of this, there are an abundance of New Testament manuscripts from this time. This amount of documents gives us assurance that we can discern the content of the original writings despite the time gap from the original documents. Here is a break down of the numbers for the Bible:

Greek Manuscript total: 5,856

Non-Greek Manuscripts (Armenian, Latin, etc.): 18,130

Total Manuscripts: 23,986

This is an astounding number when compared to other ancient documents. If you stack existing manuscripts from the average classical writer, it would measure about four feet high. The NT manuscripts would stack to more than one-mile high.

Work	total number of manuscript copies
Homer’s Illiad	643
Herodotus History	109
Plato Tetralogies	210
Caesar Gallic Wars	251
Tacitus Annals	33

Number of Copies of Classical Writings

What about the variations in the documents? We know that the scribes who copied the manuscripts took extreme efforts to get the transmission accurate. Because of the human element in the transmission, there are differences in the texts. But this is completely understandable given the human complexities and difficulties in copying. What is quite remarkable, given this fact, is that the vast majority of biblical texts remain consistent across all of the biblical manuscripts. Of the 5,856 Greek manuscripts, there is 98% agreement as to what the original writing is. Where there is disagreement, none of these effects doctrine.

Most of these variations are no more significant than spelling differences, small changes of word order or misplaced letters. The chart below shows what the nature of most of these variants are like:

Spelling Conventions	In English this is similar to using “a” versus “an” or “who” versus “whom.”
Similar Appearances of Words	In 1 Timothy 3:16, some manuscripts read “He was revealed in the flesh” while others read “God was revealed in the flesh.” The difference is accounted for how “God” and “he” in abbreviated form in the Greek look very similar: “he” (Greek: Ὃς) and “God” (Greek: Θεὸς). Yet, this has no effect on the meaning.
Similar Sounding Words	Sometimes scribes would work in teams, with one scribe reading aloud while the other wrote what was spoken. In some cases, a word would be misheard because it had a similar sound. This would be in English like writing “rode” instead of “road” or “there” instead of “their.”
Transposed Words	Christ Jesus versus Jesus Christ (Word order in the Greek is not nearly as important as it is in English.)

Examples of the Kinds of Variants in NT Copies

Many of these variants are clustered in just a few places over and over again. As they are spotted, it is easy to identify them and make the corrections or clarify the original words. The Codex Sinaiticus contains many scribal corrections to errors they spotted in the copying process. But these are not significant in terms of content and especially doctrine. For example, imagine you come across a copy of a document which reads, “Roses are read, violets are blue. . . .” It’s not hard to see what happened as the original was copied? The correction is fairly simple: “Roses are red, violets are blue…” The scribal corrections are evidence of the importance of and strenuous efforts made toward accuracy. The Codex Sinaiticus (along with the other Alexandrian Texts) is another confirmation that the core message of the Bible has been remarkably preserved.

Conclusion

So, can we trust that the Bible has been accurately translated? YES! The evidence shows a nearly miraculous process which allowed for such a stable transmission. As a result, we can be confident that the translations we have are based on an overwhelmingly strong amount and quality of document sources. The discovery of the Codex Sinaiticus was just another layer of evidence increasing our confidence in the reliable transmission of God’s Word.

“Your word, LORD, is eternal; it stands firm in the heavens.”
Psalm 119:89

The codex advanced God’s Story of Grace by allowing the writings of the apostles and prophets to become more accessible, widespread and diverse communities (many) to become unified (one).

¹ Most modern Bible translations are based on the Alexandrian Texts.

What Was the First Bible Of the Church? (Isaiah 49:6)

As we discovered in the previous article, The Library of Alexandria played a crucial role in the creation of the Septuagint (LXX), the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible. This is highly consequential because the New Testament authors quote it over 300 times. Further, it would become the main Bible (in regard to the Old Testament) of the early church for nearly its first 500 years. So, where did it come from? The Letter of Aristeas reports that Ptolemy II requested that a translation be made of the Hebrew Bible for the Alexandrian Library. He supposedly sent 72 Jewish scholars to Alexandria to carry out the translation. (Septuagint is Latin for 70. It is often abbreviated in Roman numerals as LXX.) Genesis through Deuteronomy was translated around 280 BC. The other sections of the Old Testament would be translated later at various times and places and by various people. Eventually it became the standard Greek version of the Old Testament for the early Christian and Jewish communities alike.

It is hard to overstate the importance of the Septuagint for the spread of God’s Story of Grace. It was a substantial leap forward toward the promise below where God declares to the Jewish people:

“I will also make you a light for the Gentiles,
that my salvation may reach to the ends of the earth.”
Isaiah 49:6

In this article, we will lay out three key ways the LXX (Septuagint) was central to the advance of God’s Story of Grace, and then we will look at what it means for how we understand and read the Bible today.

Three Big Influences of the Septuagint

The LXX made the Old Testament accessible to the world.

After the dispersion of Israel under the Assyrians (722 BC) and later Judah by the Babylonians (597 BC), the majority of Jews remained outside of Israel (even after the return in 538 BC) in lands they were taken captive. Because of this, most Jews lost the ability to read or speak Hebrew (the original language of the Old Testament) within a couple of generations. Of the dispersed Jews the largest and most influential population was in Alexandria, Egypt. Out of this great city came the LXX. As copies of it spread, this allowed for their scriptures to be read wherever they were dispersed since every country in the known world of the Jews spoke Greek because of the influence of Alexander the Great. While the Septuagint was initially used by Jews, it came to be read by a much larger population of gentiles, especially those who were converts to Christianity.

The LXX demonstrated that God is missional.

The very Word of God (The Bible) became translatable without losing its force, meaning or power. This was the first large scale translation of God’s revelation demonstrating that God is eager to bring salvation and the knowledge of himself to the ends of the earth. God’s desire from the very beginning has been for his message to be communicated to the nations as revealed in the original promise to Abraham:

²“I will make you into a great nation,
    and I will bless you;
I will make your name great,
    and you will be a blessing.
³I will bless those who bless you,
    and whoever curses you I will curse;
and all peoples on earth
    will be blessed through you.” (Genesis 12:2-3)

From the Tower of Babel (Genesis 11), we know that God did not want to force the world into one language, but created a diversity of languages:

This is what the Lord Almighty says: “In those days ten people from all languages and nations will take firm hold of one Jew by the hem of his robe and say, ‘Let us go with you, because we have heard that God is with you.’” (Zechariah 8:23)

This anticipates a process of biblical translation which today has recorded the Hebrew Old Testament and the Greek New Testament into over 3,400 different languages.

The LXX shaped the theology of the New Testament.

In its use of the Greek, The LXX was able to bring out a greater depth of the messianic or New Covenant meaning latent in the Hebrew words of the Old Testament. This would help to shape the vocabulary and theology of the Christian faith. Below are six examples:

Example # 1: “Christ”

“Jesus was born, who is called Christ.” (Matthew 1:16)

English Translation	Greek Word	Common Greek meaning	Septuagint Usage	Influence On the New Testament
Christ	christos (Gr. Χριστός)	“to be rubbed on” (referring to oil or ointment)	In Hebrew, “mashiach” (מָשִׁיחַ) means “anointed one”	honorific title for Jesus “Christ” (“Messiah”)

The Hebrew word Mašíaḥ (מָשִׁיחַ) referred to individuals designated by God for specific roles, such as kings or priests, through anointing with oil. In the LXX, Mašíaḥ was consistently translated as Christos (χριστός), a Greek loanword derived from the verb χρίω (chrī́ō) which means “to anoint”. This, then, became the honorific title for Jesus, the Christ (the anointed one).

Example # 2: “Sin Offering”

“God did by sending his own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh to be a sin offering.” (Romans 8:3)

English Translation	Greek Word	Common Greek Meaning	Septuagint Usage	Influence On the New Testament
sin offering	peri hamartias	“concerning sin” or “for sin”	technical term “sin offering,” for Heb. hatta’t	Jesus himself as the ultimate “sin offering”

“Peri hamartias” (περί ἁμαρτία) is literally translated “concerning sin” or “for sin.” Because of the LXX it became the term used to translate hatta’t (חטאה) which means “sin offering.”

Example # 3: “Covenant”

“This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many,” (Mark 14:24)

English Translation	Greek Word	Common Greek Meaning	Septuagint Usage	Influence On the New Testament
covenant	diathēkē	“last will” (cf. synthēkē, “contract”)	divine “covenant,” for Heb. berith	divine covenants

Diathēkē (διαθήκη) in its original Greek usage primarily referred to a last will or testament outlining the distribution of possessions after death. The LXX translators chose diathēkē to translate “berith”(ברית), meaning covenant, in the Hebrew Bible. A more common Greek word for “covenant” was suntheke. Diathēkē emphasizes the one sided (God’s side) of the covenant over suntheke which speaks to a mutual agreement.

Example # 4: “Propitiation”

“He is the propitiation for our sins, and not for ours only but also for the sins of the whole world.” (1 John 2:2)

English Translation	Greek Word	Common Greek Meaning	Septuagint Usage	Influence On the New Testament
propitiation	hilastērion	“expiation” (of the gods)	covering of the ark where atonement by blood is made, for Heb. kapporet	Jesus himself as the consummate “mercy seat” of propitiation

The LXX introduced the term “hilastērion“ (ἱλαστήριον) to translate the Hebrew word kapporeth (כַּפֹּרֶת) which refers to the mercy seat (or lid) of the Ark of the Covenant. This term was understood in the Hellenistic Jewish world to refer to an object that brings atonement or reconciliation through propitiation (satisfying the justice of God). The LXX’s use of “hilastērion” helped solidify its connection to the concept of atonement and forgiveness.

Example # 5: “Gospel”

“the gospel must first be preached to all nations” (Mark 13:10)

English Translation	Greek Word	Common Greek Meaning	Septuagint Usage	Influence On the New Testament
gospel	euangelizomai	report of “good news” from battle	spiritual/ salvific “good news,” especially in Isaiah	“proclaiming the gospel”

Euangelizomai (εὐαγγελίζομαι) was commonly used for reports of military victories. In the LXX, especially in Isaiah, it was applied to spiritual good news related to the saving work of God. This had a strong influence on the apostolic authors as they linked this word to the proclamation of Jesus’ victory.

Example # 6: “Lord”

“every tongue acknowledge that Jesus Christ is Lord” (Philippians 2:11)

English Translation	Greek Word	Common Greek Meaning	Septuagint Usage	Influence On the New Testament
Lord	kyrios	term of respect for anyone in authority	translation of “Lord” (both adonai and kyrios)	title for “Lord” Jesus

The LXX significantly changed our understanding of the word “kyrios” (κύριος) by establishing it as a primary Greek equivalent for the Hebrew name for God (YHWH) and the title “Lord.” “Kyrios” originally meant “lord” or “master;” the LXX’s use solidified its association with the divine name and the concept of God’s sovereignty.

Reading the Septuagint Today

1. The LXX has a real authority, but it is derivative.

Obviously, since the Greek translation of the Old Testament is quoted over 300 times in the New Testament, this shows it has great importance. But its authority is derived from the actual Hebrew manuscripts it translates. The inescapable logic is that the Hebrew text is primary since it is the one being translated. The original Hebrew documents written by the prophetic authors have primary or ultimate authority, what Jesus labelled as Moses, Prophets and the Psalms.

Everything must be fulfilled that is written about me in the Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms. (Luke 24:44)

So, it is clear that the LXX is not a separate authority from the Hebrew Bible, but derives its authority as it reflects and correctly draws out the meanings of the original text.

2. The LXX shows the messianic movement of God’s Story In the New Testament.

As seen above, the LXX was able to take the Hebrew language and draw out the richer implications of the words which would serve as a vehicle for the language of the New Testament. Even before Jesus the Messiah came to this earth, the Story of God’s Grace was advancing forward toward the Savior as seen in the LXX. This is further seen in how the Greek translators, on occasion, subtly transform their Hebrew source in ways that give a more personal glimpse of the Messiah. Here are some selected examples:

Genesis 49:10

In Genesis 49: 10, Jacob’s blessing on Judah reads from the Hebrew:

The scepter will not depart from Judah,
nor the ruler’s staff from between his feet,
until he to whom it belongs shall come and the obedience of the nations shall be his. (Genesis 49:10, NIV)

From the LXX it reads from the Greek:

A ruler shall not fail from Judah, nor a prince from his loins, until there come the things stored up for him; and he is the expectation of nations. (Genesis 49:10, LXX)

The Greek translator personifies the metaphor by substituting “ruler” for “scepter” and “prince” for “ruler’s staff.” This emphasis on the personal nature of the prophetic blessing sets the stage for other Jewish writings that interpret the prophecy with a messianic emphasis.

Isaiah 26:18

See, I lay a stone in Zion, a tested stone,
a precious cornerstone for a sure foundation;
the one who relies on it
will never be stricken with panic. (Isaiah 28:16, NIV)

This is important passage for messianic trajectory. (see 1 Peter 2:6) This trajectory is aided with the Greek translation, which reads:

I lay for the foundations of Zion a costly stone, a choice, a corner-stone, a precious stone, for its foundations; and he that believes on him shall by no means be ashamed. (Isaiah 28:16, LXX)

The Greek, as can be seen, adds the object of faith: “he that believes on him.” This personifies the stone as an object of faith, which— combined with the importance of Zion (Jerusalem) in the Old Testament— suggests that the translator understands the “stone” as a messianic metaphor.

Psalm 72:17

Development of the preexistence of the Messiah can be seen more clearly in the Greek translation, while the Hebrew Bible is less clear on this matter. Here are two Old Greek examples which suggest that the idea was developing within Judaism. First, Psalm 72, which is a hymn of praise to a messianic king, states in the Hebrew in v.17:

May his name endure forever;
may it continue as long as the sun. (Psalm 72:17, NIV)

The Greek, however, renders the second clause, “May his name endure prior to the sun.” This “prior to the sun” points in a temporal sense to preexistence.

Conclusion

As Paul writes in Galatians 4:4, when the fullness of time had come, God sent forth his Son, there was much that needed to occur before Jesus could come to this earth. One of the key developments in this unfolding Story of Grace was translation of the Septuagint.

The Most Important Intellectual Event Ever, The Library of Alexandria (Habakkuk 2:14)

**Representation of the Alexandrian Library**

A major advance in God’s Story of Grace was The Library of Alexandria. It was the the most important event of intellectual history of the ancient world and maybe for time immemorial. The results of this library’s influence have echoed loudly throughout history, and its sounds are continuing to be heard. This is a central reason for why Greek language and Greek culture spread throughout the Western world allowing for the spread of science, classical literature, democracy and most importantly the Bible and ultimately the Christian faith. Because of this library, it facilitated the declaration of the prophet Habakkuk, which he declared in the midst of his lament:

For the earth will be filled with the knowledge of the glory of the LORD as the waters cover the sea.
Habakkuk 2:4

In this article we will explore what this great library did to shape the world to more reflect the trinitarian reality of increase unity (the oneness of the Trinity) across nations with the greater freedom (the unique persons of the Trinity) with individual thought, personal agency and representative democracy.

The Significance of the Alexandrian Library

Founded in the early 3rd century BC, it attracted the best thinkers, researchers, and scientists from all over the world. In addition, it housed the world’s greatest body of knowledge with a collection of as many as 500,000 scrolls (ancient books) which included works of religion, literature, history, law, math, and science. Because of this, there were significant advances in:

Scientific & Mathematical Understanding. Scholars who made significant and lasting contributions in these areas include Euclid in mathematics , Archimedes in physics, Galen in medicine, and Eratosthenes in astronomy, to name a few.
Literary Preservation. Many great and lasting texts of literature were preserved which may have otherwise been lost. Among them were the works of Homer, Sophocles, Plato and Aristotle.
Cultural Interaction: The library attracted the greatest minds from across the world, fostering a vibrant exchange and cross-pollination of ideas.
Biblical Knowledge. The most important contribution of the Library of Alexandria was the the Greek translation of the Hebrew scriptures (Old Testament) known as the Septuagint. It was here that Jewish scholars verses in Greek began the translation of their sacred writings. This ultimately allowed for the worldwide spread of the Bible and ultimately Christianity.

Why Alexandria Egypt?

**location of the port city of Alexandria**

Alexander the Great entered Egypt in 332 BC where he was welcomed by the Egyptians as a liberator from the oppression of Persian rule. He embraced Egypt as his own respecting Egyptian culture and religion, even adopting some Egyptian titles and practices. In his embrace of Egypt, he founded the city of Alexandria. Strategically located along the mouth of the Nile, it was positioned to become a major center of Hellenism (the movement to spread Greek culture and ideas) and trade as it was easily accessible to other nations by sea. Alexander established a Greek government to control the administration of Egypt. Greek influence was further reinforced by the settlement of Alexander’s veterans throughout Egypt, who formed a privileged aristocracy (ruling elite) that gradually assimilated with the Egyptians.

After Alexander’s death, his general Ptolemy took control of Egypt and established a dynasty which ruled Egypt for nearly three centuries. As was hoped, the city of Alexandria emerged as a center of Hellenism which spread Greek learning and culture. Its location was not only great for international trade and commerce, but cultural engagement among nations. Further, Egypt was a major producer of papyrus (this is where we get the word “paper”) which was the primary writing material of the time, ensuring a readily available supply for the library’s growing collection for the scribes who worked tirelessly to copy manuscripts. These factors made it ideal for a library of international repute. Ptolemy was a man of intelligence and iron will. He placed many scholars on his payroll.

Alexandria’s Most Notable Influences

Euclid the Mathematician

Euclid, known as the “father of geometry,” lived in Alexandria during the time of Ptolemy I, who reigned over Egypt from 323 to 285 BC, and is thought to have been among the library’s first scholars. Here he wrote his influential Elements which laid the foundations for mathematical reasoning and geometry as we know it even today. The logical structure and rigorous proofs in Elements set a standard for mathematical reasoning. This became the standard textbook for mathematical education in the ancient world, the Islamic world, and in Europe until almost the present time. Newton’s Principia, which marked the beginning of modern physics, took Euclid’s work as its intellectual model.

Archimedes the Engineer

Archimedes, a prominent figure in physics and mathematics, is especially known for his contributions to the science of matter, including the principle of buoyancy and the “Archimedes screw” which was used to transport water from a lower to a higher level. This is still commonly used today in water treatment plants, irrigation systems, and even for generating hydroelectric power. He also made significant contributions to mathematics, including calculating the area and volume of geometric shapes and approximating the value of pi. He is also famous for his work on levers and pulleys and inventions of various machines. He was so absorbed in his intellectual pursuits, it is said that he would frequently forget to eat or bathe.

Galen the Physician

Galen, a renowned physician, surgeon, and philosopher, studied in Alexandria and drew inspiration from the library there, which housed knowledge about anatomy and physiology. Galen made significant advances in medicine by advocating for anatomical studies through dissection (mainly performed on animals), demonstrating that arteries carry blood not air (a concept that had been taught for 400 years). Galen strongly believed in the importance of anatomy as the foundation of medical knowledge. He made important observations about the nervous system, including functions of the spinal nerves. He was the first physician to use the pulse as a sign of illness. Galen’s work contributed to the improvement of surgical skills. His writings and theories dominated medical thought for over 1,500 years, and his influence remains significant in the history of medicine.

Eratosthenes the Astronomer

**An armillary sphere is an instrument that demonstrates the movement of the planets.**

Eratosthenes, an astronomer and mathematician, made significant advances in the study of the stars and the planets. He astoundingly provided an accurate calculation of the earth’s circumference and axial tilt, and is credited with creating the armillary sphere, an early astronomical device. He developed a system of longitude and latitude and made a map of the known world. He is credited with coining the term “geography”. He created the Sieve of Eratosthenes, a method for finding prime numbers.

Preserved the Heritage of Literature

The library housed a vast collection of scrolls and papyri, including works by prominent figures making it a store house of knowledge. This is where many of the great texts from Greece, Persia, Mesopotamia and other places were kept in safe keeping. With housing all of these ancient documents, this was the place where the science of textual criticism developed (the process of attempting to ascertain the original wording of a text). Harold Ellens summarizes the gift that the Alexandrian Library brought to us:

It stimulated an intensive editorial program that spawned the development of critical editions, textual exegesis [interpretation of texts] and such basic research tools as dictionaries, concordances and encyclopedias. The library in fact developed into a huge research institution comparable to a modern university—containing a center for the collection of books, a museum for the preservation of scientific artifacts, residences and workrooms for scholars, lecture halls and a refectory.

The Biggest Contributions to Advance God’s Story

The Septuagint

As already reported, The Septuagint is the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament). The word Septuagint means “70” in Latin and refers to the 70 translators of the first five books of the Old Testament. The rest of the Old Testament would be translated in subsequent years. Its great significance comes from two facts:

The Septuagint translation of the Old Testament is quoted by the New Testament writers more than 300 times. (This is much more frequent than quotations of the original Hebrew Old Testament.) Approximately 7% of the New Testament consists of Septuagint quotes.
For several centuries it was the Bible of Christians in regard to their reading and study of the Old Testament. As the large majority of gentiles did not read or speak Hebrew, the Septuagint made scripture accessible to God-fearing gentiles (gentiles who practiced Judaism) and the early church.

The Septuagint would not have been translated had it not been for the resources provided at the Alexandrian Library. By the fact that this work was part of the Christian Bible for several centuries and makes up 7% of the New Testament, it would appear to give strong evidence that the formation of the Alexandrian Library was part of God’s Story of Grace to advance his plan in the world.

The Alexandrian Text of the New Testament

The Library of Alexandria, with its nearly 500,000 books, had a strong tradition of copying. As works were collected, scribes–those who copied manuscripts–would diligently reproduce the works. Their work was crucial in preserving and disseminating these works. It was out of this scribal discipline that key manuscripts of the New Testament have been delivered to us.

As Christianity spread to Alexandria, Egypt as early as 49 AD, letters now consisting of the New Testament were brought to the Alexandrian church. Christians trained in the scribal discipline copied these letters so they could be more widely read. It is from Alexandria that we have around 30 New Testament manuscripts, either in part or whole. These 30 copies make up only a very small percentage of all the ancient manuscripts we have of the New Testament, but Alexandria gives us our oldest texts, one of which dates back to 125 AD of a portion of the Gospel of John.

Conclusion

As Zechariah proclaimed of the Messiah:

He will proclaim peace to the nations.
His rule will extend from sea to sea
and from the River to the ends of the earth. (Zechariah 9:10)

The founding of the Library of Alexandria was one more step in God’s Story of Grace to proclaim peace to the nations!

Two Triumphal Entries: Alexander the Great and Jesus the Messiah (Zechariah 9:1-10)

It is the distinct reality that in God’s Story of Grace, God uses even the wicked for his overall purposes and plans. Scripture testifies to this in many places.

Alexander the Great in the Temple by
Sebastiano Conca (1680-1761)

“Human defiance only enhances your glory, for you use it as a weapon.”
Psalm 76:10

In this article, we will see four prophecies (these four cover a one year period) where the prophet hydroplanes over four mountain peak events where we see God uses Alexander the Great as an agent of judgement against the pride and wickedness of different regions which were near Jerusalem. Then we will see how the ambitious conqueror, instead of conquering the holy city of Jerusalem, acknowledges the God of Israel and makes sacrifices to him. This shows in a dramatic and definitive way how God is Lord even over those who oppose him. We will see how God uses evil to overturn evil and prepare the way for the Triumphal Entry of Christ to advance His Story of Grace. What will become clear is that the destructive force of Alexander’s army tears down obstinate forms of evil and opens up the way for the grace of the Messiah, Jesus Christ, to come into the world at the proper time.

An Invader From the North (Zechariah 9:1-8)

In the previous article we saw how Daniel 8:1-8 foretold about the rapid conquest of Alexander the Great’s military machine to overtake 200 million square miles of territory over three continents in thirteen years. This prophecy occurred nearly 300 years before Alexander’s time. Then emerges Zechariah, who spoke the Word of God soon after Daniel’s death, from 520 to 518 BC, and forecasted with precision a one year portion (ca. 333-332 B.C.) of Alexander’s 13 year conquest. Like Daniel, he did this with stunning accuracy a few centuries before the actual events unfolded. This is seen through the subduing of three regions along the Mediterranean Sea and then a miracle at Jerusalem.

Syria Invaded

¹A prophecy:

The word of the Lord is against the land of Hadrak and will come to rest on Damascus— for the eyes of all people and all the tribes of Israel are on the Lord—

In Zechariah’s time no one would have dreamed that the Greeks could ever constitute a significantly powerful military force which would bolt through the world. In retrospect that is what is depicted in Zechariah 9. The prophecy deals with the punishment that God would visit on various city-states down the Mediterranean coast. It commences after Alexander marched into Syria in 333 BC and defeated the Persian army at the battle of Issus. It is here that the prophecy picks up with Alexander’s conquest into Damascus and will proceed southward. The prophet begins by pointing out in v.1 that God has sovereign power over Hadrach (either an ancient area or city in Syria) near Damascus. This is the only place where Hadrach is mentioned in the Old Testament, though it is mentioned in Assyrian cuneiform tablets. Hadrach may represent the far and obscure reaches of the world. What is shown through this subjugation is that “all people” will acknowledge God’s reign in the world.

Phoenicia Invaded

²and on Hamath too, which borders on it, and on Tyre and Sidon, though they are very skillful. ³Tyre has built herself a stronghold; she has heaped up silver like dust, and gold like the dirt of the streets. ⁴But the Lord will take away her possessions
and destroy her power on the sea,
and she will be consumed by fire.

In v.2 Hamath is a city to the far north of Syria. The prophet moves over to the area of Phoenicia and references the coastal cities of Tyre and Sidon. In v.3 Tyre is singled out for special attention because of its tremendous wealth, power and security which has “silver like dust, and gold like the dirt of the streets.” Not only did Tyre have great wealth, but it was known for its cunning shrewdness in business and politics. It was a city which was a model of human perfection in many ways. This brought to the leaders of the city a great arrogance. Ezekiel describes the king of Tyre as being filled with an enormous pride at an anti-Christ level, mistaking themselves for God. Ezekiel points out that Tyre was filled with pride claiming, “I am a god:”

¹The word of the Lord came to me: ²“Son of man, say to the ruler of Tyre, ‘This is what the Sovereign Lord says:

“‘In the pride of your heart
    you say, “I am a god;
I sit on the throne of a god
    in the heart of the seas.”
But you are a mere mortal and not a god,
    though you think you are as wise as a god.
³Are you wiser than Daniel?
    Is no secret hidden from you?
⁴By your wisdom and understanding
    you have gained wealth for yourself
and amassed gold and silver
    in your treasuries.
⁵By your great skill in trading
    you have increased your wealth,
and because of your wealth
    your heart has grown proud.

As a result of this swelling arrogance, judgement is coming:

⁶“‘Therefore this is what the Sovereign Lord says:

“‘Because you think you are wise,
    as wise as a god,
⁷I am going to bring foreigners against you,
    the most ruthless of nations;
they will draw their swords against your beauty and wisdom
    and pierce your shining splendor.
⁸They will bring you down to the pit,
    and you will die a violent death
    in the heart of the seas.
⁹Will you then say, “I am a god,”
    in the presence of those who kill you?
You will be but a mortal, not a god,
    in the hands of those who slay you.
¹⁰You will die the death of the uncircumcised
    at the hands of foreigners.

The destruction at the hands of foreigners came in several waves. The Babylonians besieged it for thirteen years from 586 to 573 BC. Cyrus the Great of Persia surrounded it in 539 BC. In both of these cases, though the main land became ravaged, Tyre was ultimately not subdued because it had an island isolated from the mainland. This island was highly fortified and had access to the other countries of the Mediterranean for its supplies. With its great wealth it could sustain itself under siege for years. Though the mainland was taken by conquerors, it remained for Alexander to finally destroy its island fortification. He did this by taking the rubble from the mainland of Tyre and making a causeway to the island. In seven months it was totally destroyed vindicating Ezekiel and Zechariah’s predictions.

Philistia Invaded

⁵Ashkelon will see it and fear;
    Gaza will writhe in agony,
    and Ekron too, for her hope will wither.
Gaza will lose her king
    and Ashkelon will be deserted.
⁶A mongrel people will occupy Ashdod,
    and I will put an end to the pride of the Philistines.
⁷I will take the blood from their mouths,
    the forbidden food from between their teeth.
Those who are left will belong to our God
    and become a clan in Judah,
    and Ekron will be like the Jebusites.

Four of five cities of the Philistines are mentioned in vs.5-7. (Gath is the only one not mentioned.) Zechariah predicts that this tribe of people will lose its ethnic identity as a mongrel people will occupy Ashdod. Ekron will be like the Jebusites meaning Ekron will be overtaken like the Jebusites had been, when King David invaded, and it become a mixed race of people. The Greek armies subdued this area after their conquest of the Phoenicians.

Israel Spared (The Miracle!)

The next major city for the ambitious general to overrun was the Hebrew capital of Jerusalem only forty miles to the east of Philistia. This was only logical and was ripe for taking by the unquenchable appetite for conquest of the Greek army. This did not happen because Zechariah declared that Jerusalem would be given divine protection. In v.8 God declares:

⁸But I will encamp at my temple
to guard it against marauding forces.
Never again will an oppressor overrun my people,
for now I am keeping watch.

Alexander, while still at the siege of Tyre, sent a letter to the Jews demanding their loyalty. They had previously pledged themselves to Darius the Mede, but when they saw that he was defeated by the Greeks at the Battle of Issus, they changed their minds. Josephus (37–100 AD) details how this prophecy was carried out:

.. [Alexander] gave his hand to the high priest and, with the Jews running beside him, entered the city. Then he went up to the temple, where he sacrificed to God under the direction of the high priest, and showed due honour to the priests and to the high priest himself. And, when the book of Daniel was shown to him, in which he had declared that one of the Greeks would destroy the empire of the Persians, he believed himself to be the one indicated; and in his joy he dismissed the multitude for the time being, but on the following day he summoned them again and told them to ask for any gifts which they might desire …

Not only did he not assault the city, and he also allowed them to practice the laws of their forefathers. Many of the Jews joined Alexander’s army and accompanied him in his mission of conquest.

What Can We Conclude From Josephus’ Account?

First, in describing Alexander’s Mediterranean conquests, Zechariah declared that Jerusalem would not be taken.
Second, there is no logical reason why Jerusalem should not have been captured. It was a very wealthy city when compared to some of the others which had just been overrun.
Third, for some seemingly inexplicable reason, Alexander spared the city and became friendly towards the Jews.
Fourth, in view of the prophecies, it is most logical to conclude that God was providentially directing the activities of the Greek ruler.

The Real Triumphal Entry

Zechariah will go on to prophesy of another conqueror in 9:9-10:

9Rejoice greatly, Daughter Zion!
    Shout, Daughter Jerusalem!
See, your king comes to you,
    righteous and victorious,
lowly and riding on a donkey,
    on a colt, the foal of a donkey.
¹⁰I will take away the chariots from Ephraim
    and the warhorses from Jerusalem,
    and the battle bow will be broken.
He will proclaim peace to the nations.
    His rule will extend from sea to sea
    and from the River to the ends of the earth.

This is a prediction of Jesus Christ coming into Jerusalem on a donkey on His Triumphal Entry the week before his crucifixion. (Matthew 21:1-11, Mark 11:1-11, Luke 19:28-44 and John 12:12-19). Alexander weakened the cities around Jerusalem and strengthened Jerusalem to protect and preserve the coming of the Messiah whose rule will extend from sea to sea and from the River to the ends of the earth. This is incredible evidence of God’s sovereign and providential order over history.

Alexander and Jesus Compared (Christ and Anti-Christ)

Jesus had a triumphal entry into Jerusalem	Alexander had a triumphal entry into Jerusalem
Jesus is God.	Alexander claimed to be God.
Jesus died for multiplied millions.	Alexander killed multiplied thousands.
Jesus died in his early 30’s.	Alexander died in his early 30’s.
Jesus rose from the dead and reigns forever.	Alexander reigned briefly.

God in His Story of Grace would even use the pride and wickedness of Alexander to pave the way for the triumph of Jesus Christ. God uses even human defiance as a weapon to accomplish his purposes to advance His Story of Grace.

How Alexander the Great Prepared the Advance Christianity (Daniel 8:1-21)

**Wall Painting of Alexander the Great**

Alexander the Great (356 BC – 323 BC) was a world historical force with “god-like” powers to shift the entire directions of nations and continents. In a period of 12 years he conquered the Persian Empire which spanned from Egypt to India and extended his conquests to cover approximately 2 million square miles. He achieved legendary victories in some of the most epic battles which displayed a tactical brilliance of extraordinary skill. As a result he spread the culture and language of the Greeks which would pave the way eventually for the Roman Empire and allow for the rapid advance of Christianity 300 years later. In this article and the next articles we will see how God, in His Story of Grace, used Alexander to expand civilization after the trinitarian image of bringing increased unity (the one) among the nations which carried with it the idea of individual freedom (the many). We will also see that Alexander’s record is tragically mixed.

In this article we will look at Alexander from the perspective of biblical prophecy in Daniel 8. We will understand that the large scale events of history and the world are under God’s hand to accomplish His Story of Grace.

Daniel’s Vision

Daniel received a prophecy regarding the overthrow of the Persian Empire and the advance of the Greek Empire around 553-554 B.C., approximately 200 years before it unfolded. The language is apocalyptic (which means to “unveil”). It opens up the curtain of what is seen so that we may peer beyond what we naturally see to understand bigger realities shaping world events. To do this it uses ideas and concepts we do understand to reveal concepts and ideas we do not as easily understand. Daniel is given the vision of a ram with two horns (representing Persia) and a goat with one horn between its eyes (representing Greece and the conquest of Alexander). The vision reads as follows:

¹In the third year of King Belshazzar’s reign, I, Daniel, had a vision, after the one that had already appeared to me. ²In my vision I saw myself in the citadel of Susa in the province of Elam; in the vision I was beside the Ulai Canal. ³I looked up, and there before me was a ram with two horns, standing beside the canal, and the horns were long. One of the horns was longer than the other but grew up later. ⁴I watched the ram as it charged toward the west and the north and the south. No animal could stand against it, and none could rescue from its power. It did as it pleased and became great.⁵As I was thinking about this, suddenly a goat with a prominent horn between its eyes came from the west, crossing the whole earth without touching the ground. ⁶It came toward the two-horned ram I had seen standing beside the canal and charged at it in great rage. ⁷I saw it attack the ram furiously, striking the ram and shattering its two horns. The ram was powerless to stand against it; the goat knocked it to the ground and trampled on it, and none could rescue the ram from its power. ⁸The goat became very great, but at the height of its power the large horn was broken off, and in its place four prominent horns grew up toward the four winds of heaven.

The vision is interpreted for Daniel by Gabriel the angel. The interpretation reads as follows:

¹⁵While I, Daniel, was watching the vision and trying to understand it, there before me stood one who looked like a man. ¹⁶And I heard a man’s voice from the Ulai calling, “Gabriel, tell this man the meaning of the vision.” ¹⁷As he came near the place where I was standing, I was terrified and fell prostrate. “Son of man,” he said to me, “understand that the vision concerns the time of the end.” ¹⁸While he was speaking to me, I was in a deep sleep, with my face to the ground. Then he touched me and raised me to my feet. ¹⁹He said: “I am going to tell you what will happen later in the time of wrath, because the vision concerns the appointed time of the end. ²⁰The two-horned ram that you saw represents the kings of Media and Persia. ²¹The shaggy goat is the king of Greece, and the large horn between its eyes is the first king.

These identifiers by Gabriel point to the fact that the Ram represents Media (elite rulers of Babylon) and Persia (who overtakes Media). There are, then, several ways this vision demonstrates the spiritual realities behind Alexander the Great and the advance of Greek culture.

Meaning # 1: Alexander’s Rapid Power

a goat with a prominent horn between its eyes came from the west, crossing the whole earth without touching the ground. (Daniel 8:5)

The Macedonians, from which Alexander came, were called “goat people.” Commentator Joseph Benson explains:

This is because, according to one report, their first king was commanded by the oracle to take the goats for his guides to empire. Afterward, seeing a herd of goats flying from a violent storm, he followed them to Edessa, and there fixed the seat of his empire, made the goats his ensigns, or standards, and called the city The Goats’ Town.

After 13 years he conquered an empire that stretched from the Balkans to northern India with his armies travelling some 20,000 miles. Through this he fought 20 major battles with no losses; he named 70 cities after himself, conquering an area spanning three continents covering approximately two million square miles.

Meaning # 2: Alexander’s Ruthless and Total Conquest

⁶It came toward the two-horned ram I had seen standing beside the canal and charged at it in great rage. ⁷I saw it attack the ram furiously, striking the ram and shattering its two horns. The ram was powerless to stand against it; the goat knocked it to the ground and trampled on it, and none could rescue the ram from its power. (Daniel 8:6-7)

When the vision describes “the goat knocked it to the ground and trampled in it,” this describes the ruthless and complete nature of the conquest over Persia. At the battle of Issus, Darius offered concessions of land for peace. Alexander wanted more than concessions; he wanted to be recognized as sole ruler of the Persian territories. Darius was unwilling, and so Alexander mercilessly crushed Persia. In the ensuing battle there are claims that the Greek army killed up to 100,000 in the battle. If this number is true, it would amounted to 200 to 300 men killed a minute for 8 hours. This one battle is illustrative of how this world conqueror brought a level of carnage and destruction which the world had never seen. Historical scholar of Greek antiquity, Victor Davis Hanson, estimates that his armies may, in all of their battles combined, have killed around 1,000,000.

Meaning # 3: Civil War and Division

The goat became very great, but at the height of its power the large horn was broken off, and in its place four prominent horns grew up toward the four winds of heaven. (Daniel 8:8)

At this great peak, Alexander’s life comes to a sudden end. This is represented in Daniel 8:8 as a “large horn was broken off.” How he died “at the height of his power,” with millions upon millions as his subjects, is uncertain. Some theories are infectious disease, poisoning, or alcoholism. The definitive cause(s) are not known. What is known is that he had no successor. This then led to an eruption of civil strife which led to the Wars of Diadochi (meaning successor). These wars lasted almost for half a century (roughly 322-275 BC) and involved multiple battles and alliances. The most prominent figures in the battles were Antigonus, Cassander, Ptolemy, and Seleucus. These are the four prominent horns in Daniel 8:8. That they grew up toward the four winds of heaven means they eventually carved out their own kingdoms in what became known as the Hellenistic period. (The word “Hellen” means Greek.) This division resulted in the formation of separate powerful and independent kingdoms:

Ptolemaic Kingdom: Ptolemy established control over Egypt and its surrounding territories.

Seleucid Empire: Seleucus took control of the eastern regions, including Persia and Mesopotamia.

Antigonid Kingdom: Antigonus and later his descendants ruled over Macedonia and Greece.

Other: Lysimachus controlled part of Asia Minor and Cassander controlled part of Greece which Antigonus did not.

This is described in a later chapter of Daniel, as well:

³Then a mighty king will arise, who will rule with great power and do as he pleases. ⁴After he has arisen, his empire will be broken up and parceled out toward the four winds of heaven. It will not go to his descendants, nor will it have the power he exercised, because his empire will be uprooted and given to others. (Daniel 11:3-4)

A Monumental Shift in Civilization

We will look at the negative implications of Alexander’s conquests in a later article. Yet, the fact is that God used Alexander the Great to prepare the way for advancing His Story of Grace.

Greek Language: Because of Alexander the Great, the Greek language became the common or business language from Egypt to India. Each territory had its own native language, but each one learned to speak Greek. This allowed for rapid communication since the world was able to speak a common tongue. It is for this reason that over 300 years later after Alexander the 27 books of the New Testament was penned in Greek. Everyone could read this and have access to the New Testament letters.

Greek Culture: Not only was there the spread of Greek language, but there was also the spread of art, architecture, philosophy, and political ideas across a vast area. Greek culture did not replace existing cultures but blended with them. This was monumental because it was the first time in which there was a international blending of one culture into many different ones. A result of this is that in many ways Christianity became a blend of Jewish and Greek cultures. Because of the migration of Greek culture to the East, it would forever shape Christian thinking and practice. This is seen first and foremost in the doctrine of Logos (John 1:1) which would lead to our understanding of the Trinity, with the Son at the eternal Logos of the Father.

Other: The spread of Greek culture made possible by Alexander had impacts on political structures, art, architecture, travel, commerce, science and medicine. These would lay a foundation for the growth of what would become the Roman Empire.

Conclusion

What is most noteworthy was that Daniel prophesied the advance of Alexander and the spread of Hellenism. Daniel did not use the name (Alexander) or the term (Hellenism). This was beyond the scope of his prophesy. His purpose was not to focus on the seen realities but to address the unseen spiritual realities behind the seen ones. As Daniel write earlier in his book:

He changes times and seasons;
he deposes kings and raises up others.
He gives wisdom to the wise
and knowledge to the discerning. (Daniel 2:21)

Aristotle, Eudaimonia and Shalom: The Ultimate Guide to Ethics

In this third and final article on the influence of Aristotle, we will see that the great philosopher significantly contributed to God’s Story of Grace by introducing what is called virtue ethics. Virtue ethics emphasizes the development of moral character (virtues) through repeated behaviors to cultivate a life which advances human flourishing. Aristotle was not really concerned with laying down strict rules for moral choices or considering the best outcomes of actions; rather he wanted ethics to focus on how an individual’s character leads to virtue creating a life of blessedness (similar to the beatitudes of Jesus in Matthew 5:3-10). We will consider, then, the unique contribution of Aristotle’s thought on ethics and how it shaped the world’s understanding and experience of moral development. We will tie this into how virtue ethics enriches our understanding of Christian discipleship.

What Is the Ultimate Purpose of Ethics?

Eudaimonia the Goal

The ultimate aim of ethics can be summed up in the word: eudaimonia. This is a Greek term first used by Aristotle in the context of philosophy. The word carries the idea of “flourishing.” Sometimes the word is translated “happiness” or “well-being.” When translated “happiness” it does not refer to a temporary state of good feelings; it rather describes a life that is lived well that brings a growing experience of moral satisfaction–fulfillment. This is the “good life,” and in the ethical sense there is no other end or higher purpose beyond it. Thus, this eudaimonia, in Aristotle’s thinking, is the proper aim or goal of all human action. He describes this as follows in his work, Nicomachen Ethics:

Now happiness, more than anything else, seems complete without qualification. For we always choose it because of itself, never because of something else. Honor, pleasure, understanding, and every virtue we certainly choose because of themselves, since we would choose each of them even if it had no further result; but we also choose them for the sake of happiness, supposing that through them we shall be happy. Happiness, by contrast, no one ever chooses for their sake, or for the sake of anything else at all.

Virtue the Means

But how does one gain this human flourishing? Aristotle makes the case that this is by the cultivation and exercise of virtue. Again from Nichomachean Ethics: “…the human good proves to be activity of the soul in accord with virtue…” What is meant by this activity of the soul is that virtue is attained by the ongoing practice of virtuous acts. He further explains, “We become just by doing just actions, temperate by doing temperate actions, brave by doing brave actions.” After the virtues have become a habit (a normal behavior) through practice, they bring a transformation of character. This character can be defined as to who we really are and how we are really inclined to act. It has been more popularly expressed as who we are when no one is looking. For Aristotle virtue is not a rote habit but something deeper in the soul. It is a trained habit of soul which guides our moral compass where our choices will shape the outcome of our life. A modern expression of Aristotelian thinking goes as follows:

Thoughts Become Words, 
Words Become Actions, 
Actions Become Habits, 
Habits Become Character, 
Character Becomes Your Destiny.

The Golden Means

A central concept in Aristotle’s thinking is the golden means. Virtue is not only right action flowing from habits that develop into character; it also entails a wisdom of deciding the right action from situation to situation. This means that virtue, as Aristotle explains, “is a mean between two vices [golden means], one of excess and one of deficiency.” Author and teacher, Brett Kunkle, provides the following elaboration and helpful chart:

The mean balances virtue between two extremes. For instance, when we examine the virtue of courage we come to see that it is balanced between the appropriate feelings of fear and confidence. Too much confidence leads to rash action, yet too much fear leads to cowardice. The individual who has attained the virtue of courage avoids both vices when he experiences the appropriate amount of fear or confidence in a particular situation.

Activity	Vice—Deficiency	Virtue—Mean	Vice—Excess
Facing loss or death	Cowardice	Courage	Rashness
Bodily appetites or pleasures	Insensibility	Temperance	Intemperance
Giving money	Stinginess	Generosity	Extravagance
Retribution for wrong	Injustice	Justice	Revenge

Examples of virtues and their corresponding vices in excess and deficiency.

By using the golden means Aristotle is not prescribing general rules, but rather a guiding principle. The guide is grounded in a wisdom which has developed the ability to choose the right action in specific cases.

Humanities teacher, Brett Saunders, provides this illustration:

Suppose I am shopping with my daughter and she is affronted by some fellow. The “right” intervention, according to Aristotle, falls between cowardice and recklessness, perhaps as a mix of cautious de-escalation and definitive show of strength. What the mean looks like for a specific act depends on the circumstances—why, how, with whom, and how much the agent acts, as well as who the agent is. Considering these variables and hitting the mean with regard to, for instance, the time of day, absence of other shoppers, appearance and manner of my daughter’s accoster, proximity or absence of security personnel— this belongs to the virtue of prudence. As a sort of keystone virtue, prudence stands out from others (self-control, justice, friendship, etc) because it is the capacity for considering the variables and determining the “mean” act (not too late or soon, not too bold and timid, not too abrasive or deferential) in the proper amount of time. Prudence is the knack of taking the right amount of time to decide on the right action.

The Lasting Legacy of Aristotle’s Ethics

A lasting influence on education.

Aristotle grounded ethics in the ideas of human flourishing and virtue. This was quite substantial for the influence of Western Civilization which emphasized the formation of character development in education. If virtue is not emphasized at the youngest age, then it is impossible to have a virtuous society. To bring about virtue in youth, Aristotle emphasized (what is another Greek term) paideia. This word means “child” but it became the shorthand for the training and education of children which cultivates virtue. Paidea had four emphases:

Stories. There was a focus on the action of heroes to deeply impress the imaginations of the young. Literature was a key facet of paideia because it forms the heart with its deepest desires, values, and loyalties.
Music. This was an influence carried over to Aristotle from Aristotle’s teacher, Plato. Plato focused attention on music “because rhythm and harmony most of all insinuate themselves in to the inmost part of the soul and most vigorously lay hold of it in bringing grace with them.”
Gymnastics. Gymnastics largely meant physical training to the Greeks. The physical training refined the whole person: intellect, imagination, sensibilities and the body.
Imitation. The Greek term used for this is mimesis (where we get our word mimic). Aristotle saw this as the soul’s imitation of the pattern from another human being. More simply put is was about having proper role models.

A lasting influence on ethics.

After Aristotle, society could begin to think in richer ways about the goals of being a community or to live together as a human family. From Persia, the world saw the spread of the empire, which did allow for the protection of certain religious and cultural freedoms. From the earlier Greeks (e.g. Cleisthenes), the world saw the introduction of democracy and ways for it to be practiced. But the deeper question for Aristotle was what are these different forms of government for? He would answer eudaimonia or human flourishing. The idea is not to have any ideal form of government (democracy, empire, etc.), but to understand that the role of government is to promote human flourishing or moral happiness. In the Old Testament a somewhat equivalent term for eudaimonia is shalom. Shalom in Hebrew means “wholeness” or “well-being.” These are both concepts that describe a life of flourishing or a life lived as it is meant to be. Theologian Cornelius Plantinga beautifully captures the meaning of shalom:

The webbing together of God, humans, and all creation in justice, fulfillment, and delight is what the Hebrew prophets call shalom. We call it peace, but it means far more than mere peace of mind or a cease-fire between enemies. In the Bible, shalom means universal flourishing, wholeness, and delight…. Shalom, in other words, is the way things ought to be.

So, in Aristotelian and biblical thinking the political form of government we adopt is a mean toward an ends: eudaimonia or shalom. The Declaration of Independence reflects this thinking in the phrase “the pursuit of happiness.” The goal of politics is to develop societies where virtue is taught and practiced and the interest of the whole can be balanced with personal freedom for increased flourishing. (This is the trinitarian model which sees flourishing as a balance of the one and the many.)

A lasting influence on Christianity

The biblical call to discipleship is centered around developing the character of our lives to become like Christ. Paul expresses it very simply: “…train yourself to be godly.” (1 Timothy 4:7) Though Christianity did not derive its understanding of discipleship from the Greeks, the ways of Jesus reflect some of what Aristotle taught. For after all, Aristotle did not invent the pursuit of virtue but discovered its reality. Repeatedly the Bible refers to how our circumstances are training us to walk in Christ-like maturity (virtue):

²Consider it pure joy, my brothers and sisters, whenever you face trials of many kinds, ³because you know that the testing of your faith produces perseverance. ⁴Let perseverance finish its work so that you may be mature and complete, not lacking anything. (James 1:2-4)

Again…

²⁸And we know that in all things God works for the good of those who love him, who have been called according to his purpose. ²⁹For those God foreknew he also predestined to be conformed to the image of his Son… (Romans 8:28-29)

Summary

There are many more scriptures which could be listed. But let’s close with a statement from C.S. Lewis, in his essay “The Weight of Glory” as he explains that biblical ethics is not simply about obeying raw commands, but they are geared toward the formation of positive blessing or eudaimonia:

If you asked twenty good men today what they thought the highest of the virtues, nineteen of them would reply, Unselfishness. But if you had asked almost any of the great Christians of old, he would have replied, Love. You see what has happened? A negative term has been substituted for a positive…. The negative idea of Unselfishness carries with it the suggestion not primarily of securing good things for others, but of going without them ourselves, as if our abstinence and not their happiness was the important point. I do not think this is the Christian virtue of Love. The New Testament has lots to say about self-denial, but not about self-denial as an end in itself. We are told to deny ourselves and to take up our crosses in order that we may follow Christ; and nearly every description of what we shall ultimately find if we do so contains an appeal to desire.

Aristotle’s Chain of Being and the “Kinds” of Genesis

God has built the desire in humans to understand and classify nature. This was one of original man’s first tasks in the Garden of Eden according to Genesis:

Now the Lord God had formed out of the ground all the wild animals and all the birds in the sky. He brought them to the man to see what he would name them; and whatever the man called each living creature, that was its name. So the man gave names to all the livestock, the birds in the sky and all the wild animals. (Genesis 2:19-20)

Yet, since the rebuilding of the earth after the Flood, this task of the classification of nature was not systematically taken up until Aristotle. Though Aristotle’s work in zoology was not without errors; in God’s Story of Grace, the great philosopher provided the grandest biological system of the time which forwarded humanity’s understanding of the great order and variety of the created world. His observations were so wide ranging to include the anatomy of marine invertebrates; the minute details the embryological development of a chick, and even the internal anatomy of snails. He went into such variety to describe the chambered stomachs of cows to the social organization of bees. Some of his observations were not confirmed until many centuries later.

As a philosopher, Aristotle is largely known for his instruction in logic, ethics and virtue. Yet, his work on the biological order of life left an enduring mark on the advancement of scientific understanding. Before Aristotle, philosophers like Heraclitus, Empedocles and Democritus focused on offering quasi-scientific explanations of the physical universe based on philosophical ideas. Aristotle largely discarded that and sought to base his views of the world on painstaking observation. What drove him to do this extremely detailed and complex work was his belief that all of nature has a logical purpose and order which could be studied and understood. This belief in a logical order and purpose of the world was grounded in his theology (belief about God). Theology, for Aristotle, was an invitation to biology. Studying living things was a way to understand the divine nature. In even in the most most humble of animals, Aristotle reasoned, there is order and beauty that reflected a divine reality.

In this article, the second on Aristotle, we will uncover the order of Aristotle’s discoveries and how his theology drove those discoveries. We will then conclude how he advanced God’s Story of Grace in the area of science.

Aristotle’s Science

Aristotle was the first to conceive of a great chain of being among all living things. He took his observations of living things and ranked them based on complexity. The greater the complexity the higher its place of the great scale of being. For example, he distinguished animals from plants, because animals have a consciousness and can move in their surroundings. Among animals he created a hierarchy based on their complexity. He separated vertebrates from invertebrates. Of the vertebrates he included five genera (a classification of common characteristics bearing similarities to the biblical “kind”). These include:

mammals
birds
reptiles and amphibians,
fish
whales (which Aristotle did not realize were mammals).

The invertebrates were classified as:

cephalopods (such as squid and octopus)
crustaceans
insects
shelled animals

In total, he classified about 500 animals, vertebrae and invertebrate, into the genera listed above. As already mentioned he classified plants, as well.

What Motivated Aristotle?

Aristotle saw organisms as having an inherent structure and purpose which leads to the overall function of the organism. This structure and purpose he called “soul.” By this he did not mean an immaterial identity separate from the physical/biological structure. The soul for Aristotle is the function of the physical organism inseparable from the body. By this definition even plants have souls. Because of this he believed all living things could be classified because all living things have a purposeful function (soul). So, where did this inherent purpose come from? The answer for this monumental thinker is God.

His understanding of God was not the same as the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob or the Jews. There are some similarities, but the differences are significant.

Similarities:

God is the highest being over all other beings.
God is pure purpose, existing without matter.
God is the unmoved mover, the first cause of motion in the universe.
God is the source of order and purpose in the world.
God is eternal.

Differences:

God is not personal.
God does not have a plan for us.
God is not affected by us.

What does all of this mean?

The advancement of science is driven by faith.

Aristotle did not come to believe that the world has purpose and order because of science; rather, he believed that the world had purposeful order, so he pursued a scientific understanding. His theology drove his science. Without the prior belief, he would have had no basis or motivation to do the meticulous research he did. It was clear to him that all of nature did not function by random chance, and that there is an order to be discovered. Everything which is purposeful necessarily is based on purposeful (intelligent) action. For example, imagine two men surprisingly meeting in a clothing store who happen to know each other, and in the process of meeting they strike up a conversation leading toward a business deal. The chance occurrence was based upon their prior and purposeful choices to go to the clothing store to buy a shirt (or whatever item). Chance occurrences, as we observe them, all occur from goal oriented or purposeful action not the other way around. Spontaneity and chance come after thoughtful purpose.

Aristotle sums it up well in his work, Physics:

Spontaneity and chance, therefore, are posterior (follow) to intelligence and nature. Hence, however true it may be that the heavens are due to spontaneity, it will still be true that intelligence and nature will be prior causes of this All and of many things in it besides.

Purposeful design and unguided evolution have an ancient contrast.

It is important to realize that Aristotle’s view of the purposeful order of nature was not at all taken for granted in the intellectual climate of the Greek world he inhabited. Aristotle references, in his work, Empedocles (495–435 BC), who proposed that nature consists of a primordial state where different organs and parts of animals were accidentally and randomly combined in different configurations. Empedocles thought that these early creatures were monstrous and unfit for life, and that most died out. He believed that the remaining creatures who survived were the result of natural selection, which removed the freakish creatures and left the ones that were best adapted to the environment. This is an early version of survival of the fittest. Those configurations which were most fitting survived, while others perished. Empedocles wrote as follows:

From it [the earth] blossomed many faces without necks,
Naked arms wandered about, bereft of shoulders,
And eyes roamed about alone, deprived of brows.
Many grew double of face and double of chest,
Races of man-prowed cattle, while others sprang up inversely,
Creatures of cattle-headed men, mixed here from men,
There creatures of women fitted with shadowy genitals.

Philosopher and theologian, Joe Carini, comments on how modern science confirms the viewpoint of Aristotle over Empedocles.

…our world is not at all like the world Empedocles imagined. Instead, we encounter a world replete with bodies that have a highly complex but ordered and functional arrangement of their parts. What is more, each of these bodies is self-reproducing, by a system that itself is highly complex but ordered and functional. Even more, these bodies exhibit engineering down to the molecular level, with parts so exquisitely ordered to a purpose that they easily surpass the best of engineering done by humans.

The advance of science confirmed revelation in scripture.

In Genesis 1 it describes a biological categorization similar to what Aristotle discovered by using the word kind. We see the designation kind used three times relation to vegetation and plant life:

¹¹Then God said, “Let the land produce vegetation: seed-bearing plants and trees on the land that bear fruit with seed in it, according to their various kinds.” And it was so. ¹²The land produced vegetation: plants bearing seed according to their kinds and trees bearing fruit with seed in it according to their kinds. And God saw that it was good. (Genesis 1:11-12)

Then we see the designation of kind used six times in reference to animal life:

²⁰And God said, “Let the water teem with living creatures, and let birds fly above the earth across the vault of the sky.” ²¹So God created the great creatures of the sea and every living thing with which the water teems and that moves about in it, according to their kinds, and every winged bird according to its kind. And God saw that it was good. ²²God blessed them and said, “Be fruitful and increase in number and fill the water in the seas, and let the birds increase on the earth.” ²³And there was evening, and there was morning—the fifth day. ²⁴And God said, “Let the land produce living creatures according to their kinds: the livestock, the creatures that move along the ground, and the wild animals, each according to its kind.” And it was so. ²⁵God made the wild animals according to their kinds, the livestock according to their kinds, and all the creatures that move along the ground according to their kinds. And God saw that it was good. (Genesis 1:20-25)

The term “kind” refers to broad categories of genetically related organisms which can breed and reproduce. This “kind” in Genesis has a nonchanging “fixity” within the design of the biological order. Kinds do not change. This means, for example, that the canine “kind” which includes the dog or dingo or wolf or jackal can reproduce together because they are members of the same canine kind. The canine kind can adapt into different species within their kind through breeding and environmental influences (e.g., chihuahua), but they do not change into another kind like a feline (cat).

Paul writes:

For since the creation of the world God’s invisible qualities—his eternal power and divine nature—have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made…
Romans 1:20

Aristotle wisely helped us to understand this.

Aristotle and the Discovery of God’s Laws of Logic

No other thinker has been so influential in laying the foundations of Western thought as Aristotle. Aristotle was born in 384 B.C. in Stargis, a city in Northern Greece. Aristotle’s father, Nicomachus, was a court physician to King Amyntas II of Macedon. He was raised in an environment which was rich with opportunities to learn and think scientifically. Both his mother and father died when he was young. Around the age of 13, Aristotle was raised by his guardian, Proxenus, who may have been an uncle. By age 17, he travelled to Plato’s Academy. The young thinker was driven by an insatiable desire for knowledge. At the Academy, Plato became a major influence on Aristotle. He spent 20 years there. He explored the fundamental questions of meaning and existence. Overtime, though, Aristotle began to see the world differently from his revered mentor. Plato saw the ideal world of the unseen as primary basis of knowledge, Aristotle argued from the primacy of the visible world. This presented a great departure between the two philosophers.

Plato died in 347 B.C. and Aristotle left Athens. By 345 B.C. he married Pythias. In 343 B.C. he received an invitation by Philip of Macedon to tutor his 13 year old son, Alexander. This adolescent would grow into Alexander the Great. Even from Alexander’s young age, Aristotle was to train him to rule a vast empire. Aristotle did this for approximately three years until Alexander turned 16, and it was determined he would take on more responsibilities for the throne. In 335 B.C. Aristotle established the Lyceum, just outside of Athens. The Lyceum was an academy to train men in philosophy (love of wisdom) for a virtuous life. It was well funded due to the patronage of Alexander. After Alexander’s death (323 B.C.), Aristotle fell out of favor with the Athenians. Rather than being executed, to be spared the fate of Socrates, he was exiled from Athens to Chalcis, a town about 40 miles north of Athens and died in 322 B.C.

Aristotle established the foundations of Western culture in three areas: logic, science and ethics. In this article and the following two, we will look at how Aristotle advanced God’s Story of Grace in each of these areas. As his thinking matured, it is largely thought that he first developed his teaching in the areas of logic (the way we discern truth), then science (the way we understand the world) and finally ethics (the way we live). We will begin by exploring his ideas on logic.

What is Logic?

Immanuel Kant (1724-1804) famously claimed that Aristotle had discovered all that there was to discover about logic. This was historically short sighted as later insights would be realized, yet it calls attention to the immense importance of Aristotle on this point. What drove Aristotle in this regard was his belief that every person has a desire to understand the world; in order to aid that understanding, he focused on laws of reason which helped people to better work out the truth or falsehood of an argument. These laws reflected general patterns of truth that are valid no matter what. Aristotle defined these rules in his work titled the Organon (Greek for organ, tool, instrument). To simplify his thinking we will focus on the the three laws of logic and the key tool in which these laws could be utilized–the syllogism.

The Three Laws of Logic

When looking at Aristotle’s laws, they sound almost like a math equation. In some sense they are in so far as they represent absolute and changeless laws. These are laid out as follows:

The law of identity: P is P.
The law of noncontradiction: P is not non-P.
The law of the excluded middle: either P or non-P.

The law of identity says P is P. This means that everything is itself and not something else. For example, we can look at a tree and observe that it is 20 feet tall and has a lightning burn. (P) In this case, the fact that this tree is 20 feet tall and has a lightning scar is not relevant to this law. It may have a lightning scar as well as letters carved (“Eileen love Al forever”) 5 feet from the base on its east side. What is important is that this particular tree is its own being and not something else. Though this seems obvious, we should not take for granted that without this law reasoning would be impossible because there would be no clear distinctions.

The law of noncontradiction says that P is not non-P. To illustrate, if we observe this same 20 foot tall tree as referred to above, it cannot both have a lightning scar and not have a lightning scar at the same time. That would violate the law of contradiction. Now It can have a lightning scar today whereas a year ago it did not because it was hit with lightning only 2 weeks ago. But it cannot have both a lightning scar and not have a lightning scar at the same time.

The law of the excluded middle says that either P or non-P. Using the idea of the same 20 foot tree, it either has a lightning scar or is does not. There is no other alternative. It cannot both have and not have a lightning scar at the same time. Though this seems way too obvious, it is a fact that many cultures, as we will see, have not viewed reality through these laws.

The Syllogism

A syllogism is a form of reasoning based on logical deduction. Deduction is where you start with known facts (called premises) and use them to reach a certain conclusion. If the premises are true then the conclusion must also be true. For example:

Premise 1: All pine trees are conifers.
Premise 2: Conifers have needle-like leaves.
Conclusion: Therefore, all pine trees have needle-like leaves.

Or…

Premise 1: God loves and has a purpose for all humans.
Premise 2: Bernardo is a human.
Conclusion: Therefore, God loves and has a purpose for Bernardo.

The key points about logical deduction are as follows:

Start with established facts or statements.
Follow a logical path of deduction for the statements.
The conclusion from this path has a certain accuracy.

The accuracy of a syllogism is based on the premises being true. If the premises are false, then the conclusion will be false, as well. Here is an example of a wrong conclusion due to false premises.

Premise 1: God can do everything.
Premise 2: Sin is a part of everything.
Conclusion: Therefore, God can sin.

The problem with this syllogism is with premise 1: God can do everything. That statement is incorrect. It should be greatly modified to read: God can do everything he wants to do. With that modification the statement should read as follows:

Premise 1: God can do everything he wants to do.
Premise 2: God does not want to sin.
Conclusion: Therefore, God cannot sin.

Logic and God’s Story of Grace

Understanding the LOGOS. Aristotle’s discovery of logic was important for a greater understanding of the LOGOS–Jesus as the Word (logic) of God (John 1:1). The laws of logic are neither inventions of God nor rules that exist outside God’s being. From the perspective of God’s Story of Grace, Aristotle didn’t invent the laws of logic; he discovered them. These laws are embedded in the very eternal being of God, himself. Because these laws are based in the very being of God they are more enduring than the physical laws (e.g. thermodynamics, gravity) which are created. God can alter the laws of nature (e.g., suspend gravity, override entropy), but he cannot in any way alter or override the laws of logic. To do so would require God altering, at an essential level, himself. In Malachi 3:6, God declares: “I the Lord do not change.”

God reflects the law of identity. God cannot exist and not exist at the same time. God says, “I am who I am” (Exodus 3:14).
God reflects the law of non-contradiction. All truth is in God (Colossians 2:3) and God cannot deny himself (2 Timothy 2:13). Because of this law, truth will never contradict truth.
God reflects the law of the excluded middle. Because God exists and does not contradict himself, this means there are no other alternatives to truth.

Quite often God acts in ways we do not understand, but that in no way means that God behaves illogically. So, these laws exist in God’s very being. Had Aristotle nor anyone else never articulated them, they would still exists. Nonetheless, in God’s Story of Grace, Aristotle methodically expressed them.

Understanding Western Civilization. Aristotle’s laws of logic reinforced an irreconcilable difference between the Western (based in Christianity) and the Eastern civilizations. Christianity holds that God (as a distinct identity) created the universe (as a distinct identity) with the earth (as a distinct identity) and all that is in the earth (as distinct identities). This reflects the law of identity: P is P, and the law of non-contradiction: p is not non-p. There is no alternative to this understanding which is the law of the excluded middle: either P or non-P. This is in sharp distinction from the Eastern religions such as Buddhism and Hinduism which are pantheistic. Pantheism holds that everything is ONE. They deny any distinctions which are communicated in Aristotle’s laws of logic. This has created very different outcomes with the Western and Eastern worlds. More about this in forthcoming articles.