In 390 A.D., when Emperor Theodosius ordered the massacre of approximately 7,000 citizens in the city of Thessalonica, this set off a clash with Bishop Ambrose of Milan. This confrontation offers a profound challenge to a superficial reading of Romans 13:1–7, where Paul famously commands submission to governing authorities. Ambrose’s resolute defiance of the emperor illustrates a critical theological distinction: that the state’s authority, though divinely instituted, is not absolute and is subordinate to God’s moral law. The conflict over the massacre at Thessalonica forged a powerful precedent in the history of church and state, demonstrating that Christians have a duty to resist and rebuke state power when it oversteps its moral and spiritual bounds.
In this article, we will address where those categories overlap. In God’s Story of Grace, the church has now come to a new place of authority and prominence to further reshape the world in the trinitarian image: increased unity and diversity. In this article, we will understand the influence of the church in relation to the state.
The Biblical Basis for State Authority
Paul wrote to the early church living in the very center of authority in the Roman Empire. This provides one of the most significant biblical passages on the Christian relationship to the state. Here is how Paul addresses this topic:
1Let everyone be subject to the governing authorities, for there is no authority except that which God has established. The authorities that exist have been established by God. 2 Consequently, whoever rebels against the authority is rebelling against what God has instituted, and those who do so will bring judgment on themselves. 3 For rulers hold no terror for those who do right, but for those who do wrong. Do you want to be free from fear of the one in authority? Then do what is right and you will be commended. 4 For the one in authority is God’s servant for your good. But if you do wrong, be afraid, for rulers do not bear the sword for no reason. They are God’s servants, agents of wrath to bring punishment on the wrongdoer. 5 Therefore, it is necessary to submit to the authorities, not only because of possible punishment but also as a matter of conscience.6 This is also why you pay taxes, for the authorities are God’s servants, who give their full time to governing. 7 Give to everyone what you owe them: If you owe taxes, pay taxes; if revenue, then revenue; if respect, then respect; if honor, then honor.
Let’s look at a basic breakdown of this passage:
Principle # 1: The state has a divine origin.
“Let everyone be subject to the governing authorities, for there is no authority except that which God has established” (Romans 13:1).
Paul grounds the state’s legitimacy in God’s providence, meaning that the institution of government is part of God’s plan for order in the world.
Principle # 2: The state bears authority as a servant of God.
“For rulers hold no terror for those who do right, but for those who do wrong… For he is God’s servant to do you good” (Romans 13:3–5).
The state’s purpose is to maintain civil order, restrain evil through punishment, and create an environment where the righteous can flourish. In this way, they are servants of God.
Principle # 3: The state is to be submitted to and honored as God’s servants.
Therefore, it is necessary to submit to the authorities, not only because of possible punishment but also as a matter of conscience. (Romans 13:5).
Paul asks Christians to obey the state not merely out of fear of retribution but out of a deeper moral commitment to God, who established the state. This includes fulfilling civic duties like paying taxes.
6 This is also why you pay taxes, for the authorities are God’s servants, who give their full time to governing. 7 Give to everyone what you owe them: If you owe taxes, pay taxes; if revenue, then revenue; if respect, then respect; if honor, then honor. (Romans 13:6–7)
These principles are solid for any age. But how this is applied to the church in the middle of the first century and the church at the end of the fourth century was considerably different. Before Constantine, the relationship between church and state was one of persecution, where Christianity was an illegal and often persecuted religion, with the state viewing it as a threat. After Constantine, the relationship transformed from persecution to tolerance and eventual state support, with the emperor becoming a key patron of the church, which gained political influence and began to intertwine with the state, a process that eventually led to Christianity becoming the official state religion.
Before and After Constantine
Before Constantine
- Persecution: Christians were a persecuted minority, and the Roman state viewed Christianity as a threat to its traditional pagan order.
- Illegal status: Christianity was an illegal religion for much of this period.
- Lack of state support: The church did not receive state funding or special privileges and had to operate independently.
After Constantine
- State patronage: Constantine ended the persecution of Christians and, through the Edict of Milan in 313 CE, granted Christianity legal toleration.
- Increased power and influence: The church gained significant political power, temporal wealth, and influence it had never possessed before.
- Official religion: The relationship evolved to the point where, within a century, Christianity became the official religion of the empire.
- Instrument of unification: Emperors increasingly relied on the church as a tool to help unify the empire, especially as its unity and authority began to crumble.
The Clash Over the Thessalonica Massacre
When Bishop Ambrose learned of the atrocity at Thessalonica, he was appalled by the emperor’s indiscriminate slaughter. This act moved beyond the state’s God-given role as a minister of justice and became a horrific miscarriage of it. Ambrose did not respond with political rebellion or armed force. Instead, he employed the most powerful spiritual weapon of his office: excommunication.
He wrote a letter of rebuke and correction to the emperor. Theodosius ignored Ambrose’s letter and showed up at the church doors. The historian Sozomen described this encounter:
When he drew near the gates of the edifice, he was met by Ambrose, the bishop of the city, who took hold of him by his purple robe, and said to him, in the presence of the multitude, ‘Stand back! A man defiled by sin, and with hands imbrued in blood unjustly shed, is not worthy, without repentance, to enter within these sacred precincts, or partake of the holy mysteries.’ The emperor, struck with admiration at the boldness of the bishop, began to reflect on his own conduct, and, with much contrition, retraced his steps. It appears that it was for these and other acts of cruelty that Ambrose rebuked the emperor, forbade him to enter the church, and excommunicated him.
Theodosius, recognizing the gravity of his sin and the spiritual authority of the bishop, eventually submitted. The historian Sozomen, again, explains his response:
Theodosius publicly confessed his sin in the church, and during the time set apart for penance, refrained from wearing his imperial ornaments, according to the usage of mourners. He also enacted a law prohibiting the officers entrusted with the execution of the imperial mandates, from inflicting the punishment of death till thirty days after the mandate had been issued, in order that the wrath of the emperor might have time to be appeased, and that room might be made for the exercise of mercy and repentance.
As a result, he enacted a law requiring a 30-day waiting period between a death sentence and its execution to prevent future impulsive acts of violence.
Before Constantine, the church and state were in conflict, with Christianity being illegal and regularly persecuted, as the state saw it as a threat. After Constantine, this changed to tolerance and support, with the emperor becoming an important supporter of the church, which gained political power and began to connect with the state, ultimately leading to Christianity being declared the official state religion.
Reconciling Submission and Resistance
Ambrose’s actions were not a rejection of Romans 13 but a consistent honoring of it. It is important to keep in mind that Ambrose did in no way seek to overthrow the emperor but rather to hold him accountable to the higher moral authority of God. The conflict reveals several critical principles for reconciling submission and resistance:
Principle # 1: The state has a divine origin. Ambrose understood that the state has its ultimate authority to God and answers to God. As such, that authority is accountable to God who is its source and even judge.
Principle # 2: The state has authority as a servant of God. While the state has legitimate authority over the civil order as a servant of God; the church has prophetic authority to call out the state when it steps beyond its service.
Principle # 3: The state, as servants of God, is to be submitted to and honored. The key here is that the state is to be obeyed “as God’s servants.” The massacre at Thessalonica was an act of gross injustice. He has every justification as a leader of the church, who had the emperor’s ear, to confront this. Ambrose’s resistance was spiritual. He did not raise an army but instead used the moral and spiritual power of the church.
Conclusion
In essence, Ambrose’s resistance was not a rebellion against authority but a protest against the abuse of authority. His actions illustrate that the Christian duty of submission outlined in Romans 13 is not a passive acceptance of all state actions but a call to active, conscience-based engagement. When the state acts outside its divine mandate to uphold justice and order, a Christian, and particularly a church leader, when properly positioned, has the duty to challenge and rebuke it for the sake of a higher purposes of God’s Story of Grace, at work in the world.
Story of Grace 