A Tale of Two Graces: What If the Hinge Of History Had Swung Toward Pelagius?

In the fifth century, the Church stood at a great crossroads, where the teachings of Augustine of Hippo clashed with those of the British monk Pelagius. Augustine proclaimed that mankind, wounded by Adam’s sin, could find salvation only through God’s freely given and continually grace. Pelagius taught that man, born with perfect free will, might attain righteousness by his own efforts and discipline.

In our true history, Augustine’s voice prevailed. But imagine that at the Council of Carthage the bishops—swayed by noble lords who admired Pelagius’s call to rigorous virtue—chose otherwise. They declared Adam’s fall a mere ill example, not a corruption passed to all. Man remained capable, by will alone, of sinless perfection.

This is a mirror held to history: a thought upon how Christendom might have unfolded in the year of Our Lord 1285, eight centuries after the Great Ascendancy of Pelagian doctrine.

The Age of the Great Ascendancy

By the thirteenth century, the teachings of Pelagius had borne fruit across the lands once called Christendom. Monasteries and cathedral schools thundered with the creed of human perfectibility. Grace was no longer a gift unearned, but a crown for those who proved worthy by ascetic toil.

Towns and cities rose fair and orderly, their walls strong, their markets bustling yet sober. Great cathedrals pierced the heavens, built by the sweat of those striving for merit. Yet beneath the grandeur lay a solemn hush—no riotous feasts, no wandering minstrels singing of human folly, for such things smacked of weakness.

The Church, wedded closely to princes and lords, taught that every soul must pursue Perfection as the highest virtue. By one’s thirtieth year, a man or woman was expected to demonstrate mastery: moral purity, bodily discipline, and keen intellect. Those who succeeded were hailed as the Perfecti—knights, abbots, bishops, and merchants of flawless repute—who held the reins of power and honor.

Those who faltered bore the stain of Voluntary Imperfection. They were not pitied as frail children of Adam, but judged as willful sluggards who chose vice over virtue.

The Tale of Brother Caelen the Illuminator

In a quiet scriptorium of a great abbey near Paris, a monk named Caelen laboured over vellum. His quill traced not the usual saints in glory, but a hidden page: a weeping figure beneath a cold moon, tears staining a face twisted in sorrow—the sorrow of a soul that knew its own breaking.

Word reached the abbot. Caelen’s work was deemed a scandal: an admission of weakness, a denial of man’s power to stand unbowed. He was brought before the chapter, accused of spreading despair.

As his precious illuminations were scraped clean and his tools cast into the fire, Caelen stood unrepentant. “Man is not born for such cold perfection,” he whispered. He was sent to a remote house of penance, there to labor in silence until his will bent—or broke. Few returned from such places with spirit intact.

In that moment, one might recall the lost voice of Augustine: that all men share Adam’s wound, that mercy flows from Christ’s Cross, that grace lifts the fallen without merit.

The Bitter Fruits: An Unholy Order

Without the balm of original sin and unmerited grace, charity grew cold. The mutual love of the Holy Trinity, mirrored in human forgiveness, gave way to a sterner trinity: merit, perfection, and rigid order.

A Merit Without Mercy

Success was proof of superior soul. The poor, the sick, the slow of wit—these were seen not as brethren in frailty, but as those who refused the path of righteousness. Alms dwindled; hospitals served only the deserving.

The Burden of Endless Striving

Perfection being declared attainable, every lapse was counted deliberate sin. Souls lived in fear of small faults, confessors harsh, penances severe. Rest was suspect; joy, if unearned by toil, a snare.

A Sharper Division of Estates

The Perfecti rose high: lords spiritual and temporal, unassailable in their virtue. Below them, the mass of imperfect common folk toiled under heavier yoke, blamed for their station. No leper was embraced, no prodigal welcomed home.

A Grace-Filled Reflection

The doctrine of original sin, though sombre, binds us in shared humanity and opens the floodgates of mercy. It reminds us we are dust, yet beloved.

In our true world—shaped by grace’s victory—we are drawn into God’s Story of Grace: wounded, yet redeemed by Christ’s unearned love; called to extend the same to every fallen soul. This breeds hospitals, orders of mercy, songs of forgiveness, and communities where the weak find strength in the Savior’s wounds.

Thanks be to God that the hinge swung toward Augustine, and toward the Cross.

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Side Bar

The Council of Carthage (418): Condemning Pelagianism

In 418 AD, a major church council met in Carthage (North Africa) and took a strong stand against Pelagianism, officially declaring it a heresy. The bishops fully supported Augustine’s teachings on sin and grace. Here’s what the council affirmed and rejected, broken down clearly:

Key Affirmations (What the Council Upheld)

All humans inherit original sin from Adam Every person is born with the effects of Adam’s sin—it impacts the entire human race.
Divine grace is absolutely necessary for any truly good act Without God’s inner help (grace), no one can do anything genuinely good or pleasing to God.

Key Rejections (What the Council Condemned in Pelagianism)

People can obey God’s commands without inner transforming grace
Rejected: Humans cannot perfectly follow God on their own; they need God’s grace to transform them from within.
Grace is given according to human merit
Rejected: Grace is a free gift from God, not something earned by our efforts or goodness.
Adam’s fall harmed only himself, not the whole human race
Rejected: Adam’s sin affected all his descendants, not just him personally.

This council was a pivotal moment in early Christian theology, solidly backing Augustine’s view of human dependence on God’s grace over the more optimistic Pelagian belief in human ability.

How Augustine’s Doctrine of Original Sin Built Stronger Societies

In the sun-bleached marble halls of ancient Rome’s senate, philosophers dreamed of a perfect republic—reason triumphing over passion, justice flowing naturally from enlightened laws. Yet time and again, greed subverted ideals, and pride corrupted leaders. A young North African bishop, Augustine of Hippo, saw through the illusion. Drawing from his own youthful malice—theft of pears not for need, but for thrill—he recognized a deeper flaw: a will bent inward, seeking self-glory over goodness. This was original sin.

While philosophers decried it as defeatist, Augustine argued honesty about human failure was the foundation for true progress. Societies built on pretense crumble; those acknowledging imperfection endure, receiving grace that comes from the self-giving love of the Trinity.

“Inside every person… a will turned inward, a ‘bent’ that sought its own glory rather than goodness itself.”

What Is Original Sin?

Original sin is like an inherited “bug” in human code—passed down from Adam and Eve’s disobedience, creating a universal tendency toward moral corruption. Humanity can’t fix this flaw alone; it needs divine grace.

Augustine saw the Fall as a cosmic shift: the Serpent’s temptation led Adam and Eve to choose self-rule over God’s. Eating the forbidden fruit (Genesis 3:6) severed harmony, introducing shame and hiding.

“Then the eyes of both of them were opened, and they knew that they were naked..." (Genesis 3:7)

This wasn’t just personal; consequences inherited through generations. From Romans 5:12:

“Therefore, just as sin entered the world through one man, and death through sin, and in this way death came to all people, because all sinned—”

Yet grace abounds: Romans 5:17 promises believers “reign in life” through Christ.

Social Benefits of Embracing Human Flaws

The Birth of Realistic Governance

Augustinian realism birthed systems assuming no one is angelic. Checks and balances prevent power concentration; independent courts pursue imperfect justice; civic engagement fosters responsibility. Humility tempers leadership, curbing tyranny.

This echoes in modern democracies: “If men were angels, no government would be necessary” (Federalist Papers). Reinhold Niebuhr’s Christian Realism added: “Man’s capacity for justice makes democracy possible; but man’s inclination to injustice makes democracy necessary.”

The Engine of Communal Charity

Pagan virtue saw generosity as elite duty. Augustine’s view: shared brokenness demands compassion. No one superior—all flawed, all needy. This sparked organized charity: hospitals, orphanages, enduring welfare networks rooted in empathy over judgment.

“Knowing that they, too, were flawed, citizens were moved to care for the poor and vulnerable.”

The Drive for Ongoing Progress

Utopias collapse in hubris. Augustinian struggle fuels incremental improvement—refining institutions, correcting injustices, pursuing science against decay. Perfection unattainable, progress becomes urgent necessity.

The Foundation of Universal Ethics

Ethics grounded in shared brokenness endure, applying to all. Everyone needs redemption and mercy, fostering compassion across divides.

Conclusion: Grace Amid Imperfection

Philosophers’ proud cities fell; Augustine’s humble truth built resilient ones. In accepting flaws, societies advance—not by human ambition, but grace breaking through pride. Thus, progress mirrors Trinitarian love: mutual, self-giving.

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Sidebar: A Translation That Shaped the West

Augustine’s strict view of original sin stemmed from a Latin mistranslation of Romans 5:12. Original Greek: eph’ hō pantes hēmarton — “because all have sinned.” (Death from individual sins in a corrupt world.) Latin Vulgate: in quo omnes peccaverunt — “in whom all have sinned.” (Guilt inherited directly from Adam.)

This led Western theology to “Original Sin” (inherited guilt + corruption), diverging from Eastern “Ancestral Sin” (corruption + mortality, no personal guilt).

Feature	Augustine’s Interpretation	Original Greek Interpretation
Inheritance	Corrupt nature + personal guilt of Adam	Corrupt nature + mortality, no guilt
Causation	All die because born guilty	All die because of own sins in corrupt world
Name	Original Sin	Ancestral Sin

The Spirit’s Revolution: Pentecost and the Making of Civilization

Pentecost marks the unrepeatable event in God’s Story of Grace that accelerates His transforming purposes—fashioning all creation into the mutual, life-giving unity of the Trinity. God draws closer to humanity, spreading His legacy across history with revolutionary power. This closeness not only reshapes political structures, scientific knowledge, and philosophical ideas but profoundly transforms individual lives.

“This is the equivalent of a spiritual big bang which would bring a new order into the world.”

What is Pentecost?

Pentecost launches the church—where God dwells in people—and propels them into a world-transforming mission. Luke describes it vividly in Acts:

Reaping the First Fruits

“When the day of Pentecost came, they were all together in one place.”
Acts 2:1

In the Jewish calendar, Pentecost (Greek for “fifty”) fell 50 days after Passover, celebrating the wheat harvest’s first fruits. What began as an agricultural feast becomes a harvest of souls: 3,000 from fifteen nations join Jesus’ followers that day (Acts 2:41).

This shift—from grain to human lives—echoes Christ’s death and resurrection yielding eternal fruit.

“What was originally celebrated as an agricultural harvest now is celebrated as a harvest of lives.”

Regeneration: The Spirit’s Mighty Rush

“Suddenly a sound like the blowing of a violent wind came from heaven and filled the whole house where they were sitting.”
Acts 2:2

A gale-force wind signals the Holy Spirit’s arrival—a spiritual “Big Bang” birthing a new order. This unstoppable force fills the 120 gathered believers, propelling them to uplift humanity from self-centered chaos.

The Spirit democratizes God’s power, shifting history’s focus from kings and elites to ordinary people transformed by regeneration.

Resources: Tongues of Fire and New Tongues

“They saw what seemed to be tongues of fire that separated and came to rest on each of them. All of them were filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak in other tongues as the Spirit enabled them.”
Acts 2:3–4

God relocates His dwelling: from Jerusalem’s stone Temple to living people—mobile, spreading His presence worldwide.

Sidebar: Echoes of the Temple

The fire at Pentecost recalls Solomon’s Temple dedication, when divine glory filled the house (2 Chronicles 7:1–3). Now, that glory rests on individuals.

Result: A Multilingual Miracle

Jerusalem buzzes with God-fearing Jews from across the known world. Bewildered, they hear Galileans declare God’s wonders in their native tongues:

“Parthians, Medes and Elamites; residents of Mesopotamia, Judea and Cappadocia, Pontus and Asia, Phrygia and Pamphylia, Egypt and the parts of Libya near Cyrene; visitors from Rome (both Jews and converts to Judaism); Cretans and Arabs—we hear them declaring the wonders of God in our own tongues!”
Acts 2:9–11

These visitors span Northern Africa, the Middle East, and Southern Europe—no language or culture holds priority.

“There is no language or culture that has priority over each other because of the outpouring of the Spirit.”

What Does This Mean?

Pentecost intensifies God’s Story across all nations. Where conquest once drove change, transformed lives through the gospel now upend the world—birthing democracy, large-scale care for the poor, the end of slavery, human rights, and women’s elevation.

Christianity honors and renews every culture, accelerating gifts from ancient civilizations (Hammurabi’s laws, Babylonian astronomy, Persian human rights, Greek philosophy, Roman law) toward their fulfillment in Christ—the “desired of all nations” (Haggai 2:7).

Sidebar: Further Reading

Dominion by Tom Holland
The Rise of Christianity by Rodney Stark
The Air We Breathe by Glen Scrivener

At Pentecost, the world turns further toward its created purpose: reflecting the mutual, self-giving life of the Trinity.

“If all of the world could gather up all of her right desires… it would find its fulfillment in Jesus.”

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Article Arc

Pentecost isn’t just a holy day—it’s the Church’s cosmic debut.
The mighty Spirit democratizes God’s power—no longer kings, but common people.
God’s glory goes mobile. Every believer becomes His dwelling place.
No language or culture reigns supreme—only grace unites.
Pentecost turns the world toward its truest purpose: sharing the self-giving life of the Trinity.

What the Story of Grace Is All About: An Excursus on Colossians 1:15–20

The Story of Grace, as a theological project, highlights how God reveals Himself through creation and redemption. The Triune God—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—unfolds a tale of love, inviting all things into communion with Him. This story is more than just history; it shows a purpose, supporting Jonathan Edwards’s idea that “the great end of all God’s works is the glory of God,” seen in the ongoing redemption of creation. Within this narrative, divine grace and human actions connect, emphasizing the need for faith and obedience in accepting God’s call. The various stories that emerge showcase different aspects of grace, linking to our own challenges and victories. By understanding grace, we see not only the larger story of redemption but also our roles in this divine journey, deepening our understanding of our relationships with God and one another.

Started in June 2023, this project explores early religion and the idea of divine economy (oikonomia) as explained by Irenaeus of Lyons, who viewed Christ’s redemptive work as a “recapitulation” (anakephalaiosis) of all creation, reversing Adam’s fall and restoring harmony in the Trinitarian life. Central to this is the early Christian hymn from Colossians 1:15–20, which Paul uses to declare Christ’s cosmic authority, interweaving protology (origins), soteriology (salvation), and eschatology (ultimate ends) into a unified tapestry of grace that shows the unity and diversity of God.

This hymn, resonant with the Wisdom traditions of Proverbs 8 and the Logos theology of John 1, declares:

¹⁵The Son is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation. ¹⁶For in him all things were created: things in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or powers or rulers or authorities; all things have been created through him and for him. ¹⁷He is before all things, and in him all things hold together. ¹⁸And he is the head of the body, the church; he is the beginning and the firstborn from among the dead, so that in everything he might have the supremacy. ¹⁹For God was pleased to have all his fullness dwell in him, ²⁰and through him to reconcile to himself all things, whether things on earth or things in heaven, by making peace through his blood, shed on the cross. (Colossians 1:15-20)

In this passage, the apostle presents a Trinitarian story where the Son, as the image of the Father, conveys the Father’s creative command and the Spirit’s life-giving presence, promoting shalom—a complete flourishing that looks forward to the new creation mentioned in Isaiah 65:17–25 and Revelation 21:1–5. This story highlights the deep connection between the three divine persons: they are united without losing their individuality, as Tertullian explained in Against Praxeas, describing the Trinity as “three persons, one substance,” distinct in their roles but unified in essence.

The implications for eschatology are significant: the Story of Grace ends with the idea that “God may be all in all” (1 Corinthians 15:28), a universal healing that mends the brokenness of sin and turns conflict into a harmonious unity that reflects the nature of the Trinity.

Three Truths of Story of Grace

Truth # 1: In God’s Story Jesus is Creator and Redeemer of all creation.

The Son is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation…And he is the head of the body, the church; he is the beginning and the firstborn from among the dead, so that in everything he might have the supremacy. (Colossians 1:15, 18)

Transcendence (God Above All) and Immanence (God Within All)

The term prōtotokos (firstborn) when referring to Christ highlights His unique position, not just in time but in essence. According to Karl Barth in Church Dogmatics (IV/1), Jesus is both the Creator and Redeemer, connecting the eternal with the present world.

Being the firstborn signifies not only Christ’s authority over all creation, similar to the “thrones or dominions” noted in Colossians 1:16, but also emphasizes His intimate relationship with all creation, filling it with divine life. This idea connects to Boethius’s view of eternity as “the simultaneous and complete possession of infinite life” in The Consolation of Philosophy, where eternity meets time through Christ’s life, making the invisible God (theos aoratos) truly present in our world. This dual nature of Christ also points to future renewal, as Athanasius mentions in On the Incarnation, “He became what we are that He might make us what He is,” meaning that humanity and creation are invited to share in God’s glory.

Romans 8:19–21 describes creation’s struggle as it waits for freedom from decay, leading to the “freedom of the glory of the children of God,” with Christ referred to as the “firstborn among many brothers and sisters” (Romans 8:29). Therefore, the resurrection starts a new age, where, as Jürgen Moltmann writes in The Coming of God, Christ brings about a “new creation” that redeems both people’s souls and the material world, suggesting a renewed environment filled with grace where decay gives way to lasting life.

Truth # 2: In God’s Story everything is being renewed into the likeness of the Trinity.

For in him all things were created: things in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or powers or rulers or authorities; all things have been created through him and for him. (Colossians 1:16)

Reciprocating Love From the Trinity

The prepositions “through” (dia) and “for” (eis) Christ describe a relationship based on the mutual love within the Trinity, where creation comes from the Father’s generous love for the Son, and is brought to life by the Spirit. As Charles Spurgeon said, “just as they are united in creation, they are united in salvation, working together as one God for our salvation.”

This reflects the harmonious unity and diversity of the Godhead, which Herman Bavinck refers to as the “archetype of man” and all creation, where “unity and diversity coexist without harming each other.“

Philosophically, this relates to Hegel’s concept of thesis-antithesis-synthesis, but reinterpreted in Christian terms as a peaceful harmony, where diversity enhances unity without conflict. Biblically, Ephesians 1:9–10 supports this idea: God “made known to us the mystery of his will… to unite all things in him, things in heaven and things on earth,” showing a Trinitarian coming together that opposes chaos with abundant life, as seen in Genesis 1’s repeated mentions of “all” and “every,” symbolizing God’s overflowing creativity (with 87 million species estimated today). In the future, this suggests a fulfilled order in Revelation 22:1–5, where the river of life flows from God’s throne and the Lamb, nurturing a restored creation in lasting communion, free from the curse (Genesis 3:17–19).

Truth # 3: In God’s Story redemption and renewal is universal in scope.

For God was pleased to have all his fullness dwell in him,and through him to reconcile to himself all things, whether things on earth or things in heaven, by making peace through his blood, shed on the cross. (Colossians 1:19-20)

The plērōma (fullness) that lives in Christ represents the complete nature of God (Colossians 2:9). It brings about a cosmic apokatallassō (reconciliation), as Irenaeus’s theory suggests: Christ “summed up all things in Himself,” restoring the broken universe.

This wide-reaching scope—covering “all things” (ta panta)—challenges ideas that focus only on humans for salvation, extending even to the suffering creation (Romans 8:22). John Piper emphasizes that “Jesus isn’t just the means. He is the great end,” the purpose of history.

Theologically, this connects with Augustine’s City of God, where grace changes selfishness into love for others, reflecting the Trinity’s unity (John 17:21–23). Looking to the future, Hebrews 1:2–3 describes Christ as heir and supporter, whose cleansing work points to the “world to come” (Hebrews 2:5), a renewed universe where “the wolf shall dwell with the lamb” (Isaiah 11:6), suggesting the end of harmful structures and the establishment of peace.

Implications of the Scope of God’s Story of Grace

First, God’s Story unfolds through salvation history. This means that God reveals Himself slowly over time, as Edwards suggests, allowing people to understand gradually without being overwhelmed. This helps them grow spiritually towards the ultimate vision. The story of Israel—from slavery in Egypt to freedom (Exodus 19–20), judges to kings (1 Samuel 8–2 Samuel 7), and exile to recovery (Ezra 1–6)—shows God’s qualities: grace, greatness, and loyalty. It all leads to Christ, who says, “Whoever has seen me has seen the Father” (John 14:9). This history points to the end times, where people can see God’s ultimate glory (1 John 3:2).

Secondly, God’s Story unfolds through the nations. Acts 17:26–27 tells us that God sets times and places “that they should seek God,” guiding cultural strengths towards a reflection of God’s nature. For example, Athenian democracy, developed from its unique conditions, sports, and theater, encourages unity in diversity, which is further enhanced by the inclusive values of Christianity (Galatians 3:28). This idea comes together in Revelation 7:9–10, portraying a diverse group worshiping Jesus, fulfilling God’s promise to Abraham (Genesis 12:3) in a beautiful diversity.

Third, God’s Story touches all cultural expressions. Language, stories, ideas, social connections, and artifacts can all be used for divine purposes. For instance, the Phoenician alphabet and papyrus allowed the creation of the Hebrew Scriptures, with “Bible” coming from Byblos, showing God’s guiding hand in history. In the end, this hints at a renewed way of understanding in the new Jerusalem, where “the leaves of the tree are for the healing of the nations” (Revelation 22:2), turning cultural creations into tools for eternal connection.

Conclusion

This project, developed over thirty years and starting in 2023, aims to understand God’s redemptive influence, bringing joy to life within the Trinitarian story. Just as Edwards’s unfinished work inspires modern extensions like Gerald McDermott’s A New History of Redemption, the Spirit—seen in Colossians 1:8–9—enables participation in divine glory (John 17:5). In this Story of Grace, the unity and diversity of creation reflect the Trinity, moving toward a future where all is made new, continuously echoing the Father’s love through the Son in the Spirit.

What Was the First Bible Of the Church? (Isaiah 49:6)

As we discovered in the previous article, The Library of Alexandria played a crucial role in the creation of the Septuagint (LXX), the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible. This is highly consequential because the New Testament authors quote it over 300 times. Further, it would become the main Bible (in regard to the Old Testament) of the early church for nearly its first 500 years. So, where did it come from? The Letter of Aristeas reports that Ptolemy II requested that a translation be made of the Hebrew Bible for the Alexandrian Library. He supposedly sent 72 Jewish scholars to Alexandria to carry out the translation. (Septuagint is Latin for 70. It is often abbreviated in Roman numerals as LXX.) Genesis through Deuteronomy was translated around 280 BC. The other sections of the Old Testament would be translated later at various times and places and by various people. Eventually it became the standard Greek version of the Old Testament for the early Christian and Jewish communities alike.

It is hard to overstate the importance of the Septuagint for the spread of God’s Story of Grace. It was a substantial leap forward toward the promise below where God declares to the Jewish people:

“I will also make you a light for the Gentiles,
that my salvation may reach to the ends of the earth.”
Isaiah 49:6

In this article, we will lay out three key ways the LXX (Septuagint) was central to the advance of God’s Story of Grace, and then we will look at what it means for how we understand and read the Bible today.

Three Big Influences of the Septuagint

The LXX made the Old Testament accessible to the world.

After the dispersion of Israel under the Assyrians (722 BC) and later Judah by the Babylonians (597 BC), the majority of Jews remained outside of Israel (even after the return in 538 BC) in lands they were taken captive. Because of this, most Jews lost the ability to read or speak Hebrew (the original language of the Old Testament) within a couple of generations. Of the dispersed Jews the largest and most influential population was in Alexandria, Egypt. Out of this great city came the LXX. As copies of it spread, this allowed for their scriptures to be read wherever they were dispersed since every country in the known world of the Jews spoke Greek because of the influence of Alexander the Great. While the Septuagint was initially used by Jews, it came to be read by a much larger population of gentiles, especially those who were converts to Christianity.

The LXX demonstrated that God is missional.

The very Word of God (The Bible) became translatable without losing its force, meaning or power. This was the first large scale translation of God’s revelation demonstrating that God is eager to bring salvation and the knowledge of himself to the ends of the earth. God’s desire from the very beginning has been for his message to be communicated to the nations as revealed in the original promise to Abraham:

²“I will make you into a great nation,
    and I will bless you;
I will make your name great,
    and you will be a blessing.
³I will bless those who bless you,
    and whoever curses you I will curse;
and all peoples on earth
    will be blessed through you.” (Genesis 12:2-3)

From the Tower of Babel (Genesis 11), we know that God did not want to force the world into one language, but created a diversity of languages:

This is what the Lord Almighty says: “In those days ten people from all languages and nations will take firm hold of one Jew by the hem of his robe and say, ‘Let us go with you, because we have heard that God is with you.’” (Zechariah 8:23)

This anticipates a process of biblical translation which today has recorded the Hebrew Old Testament and the Greek New Testament into over 3,400 different languages.

The LXX shaped the theology of the New Testament.

In its use of the Greek, The LXX was able to bring out a greater depth of the messianic or New Covenant meaning latent in the Hebrew words of the Old Testament. This would help to shape the vocabulary and theology of the Christian faith. Below are six examples:

Example # 1: “Christ”

“Jesus was born, who is called Christ.” (Matthew 1:16)

English Translation	Greek Word	Common Greek meaning	Septuagint Usage	Influence On the New Testament
Christ	christos (Gr. Χριστός)	“to be rubbed on” (referring to oil or ointment)	In Hebrew, “mashiach” (מָשִׁיחַ) means “anointed one”	honorific title for Jesus “Christ” (“Messiah”)

The Hebrew word Mašíaḥ (מָשִׁיחַ) referred to individuals designated by God for specific roles, such as kings or priests, through anointing with oil. In the LXX, Mašíaḥ was consistently translated as Christos (χριστός), a Greek loanword derived from the verb χρίω (chrī́ō) which means “to anoint”. This, then, became the honorific title for Jesus, the Christ (the anointed one).

Example # 2: “Sin Offering”

“God did by sending his own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh to be a sin offering.” (Romans 8:3)

English Translation	Greek Word	Common Greek Meaning	Septuagint Usage	Influence On the New Testament
sin offering	peri hamartias	“concerning sin” or “for sin”	technical term “sin offering,” for Heb. hatta’t	Jesus himself as the ultimate “sin offering”

“Peri hamartias” (περί ἁμαρτία) is literally translated “concerning sin” or “for sin.” Because of the LXX it became the term used to translate hatta’t (חטאה) which means “sin offering.”

Example # 3: “Covenant”

“This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many,” (Mark 14:24)

English Translation	Greek Word	Common Greek Meaning	Septuagint Usage	Influence On the New Testament
covenant	diathēkē	“last will” (cf. synthēkē, “contract”)	divine “covenant,” for Heb. berith	divine covenants

Diathēkē (διαθήκη) in its original Greek usage primarily referred to a last will or testament outlining the distribution of possessions after death. The LXX translators chose diathēkē to translate “berith”(ברית), meaning covenant, in the Hebrew Bible. A more common Greek word for “covenant” was suntheke. Diathēkē emphasizes the one sided (God’s side) of the covenant over suntheke which speaks to a mutual agreement.

Example # 4: “Propitiation”

“He is the propitiation for our sins, and not for ours only but also for the sins of the whole world.” (1 John 2:2)

English Translation	Greek Word	Common Greek Meaning	Septuagint Usage	Influence On the New Testament
propitiation	hilastērion	“expiation” (of the gods)	covering of the ark where atonement by blood is made, for Heb. kapporet	Jesus himself as the consummate “mercy seat” of propitiation

The LXX introduced the term “hilastērion“ (ἱλαστήριον) to translate the Hebrew word kapporeth (כַּפֹּרֶת) which refers to the mercy seat (or lid) of the Ark of the Covenant. This term was understood in the Hellenistic Jewish world to refer to an object that brings atonement or reconciliation through propitiation (satisfying the justice of God). The LXX’s use of “hilastērion” helped solidify its connection to the concept of atonement and forgiveness.

Example # 5: “Gospel”

“the gospel must first be preached to all nations” (Mark 13:10)

English Translation	Greek Word	Common Greek Meaning	Septuagint Usage	Influence On the New Testament
gospel	euangelizomai	report of “good news” from battle	spiritual/ salvific “good news,” especially in Isaiah	“proclaiming the gospel”

Euangelizomai (εὐαγγελίζομαι) was commonly used for reports of military victories. In the LXX, especially in Isaiah, it was applied to spiritual good news related to the saving work of God. This had a strong influence on the apostolic authors as they linked this word to the proclamation of Jesus’ victory.

Example # 6: “Lord”

“every tongue acknowledge that Jesus Christ is Lord” (Philippians 2:11)

English Translation	Greek Word	Common Greek Meaning	Septuagint Usage	Influence On the New Testament
Lord	kyrios	term of respect for anyone in authority	translation of “Lord” (both adonai and kyrios)	title for “Lord” Jesus

The LXX significantly changed our understanding of the word “kyrios” (κύριος) by establishing it as a primary Greek equivalent for the Hebrew name for God (YHWH) and the title “Lord.” “Kyrios” originally meant “lord” or “master;” the LXX’s use solidified its association with the divine name and the concept of God’s sovereignty.

Reading the Septuagint Today

1. The LXX has a real authority, but it is derivative.

Obviously, since the Greek translation of the Old Testament is quoted over 300 times in the New Testament, this shows it has great importance. But its authority is derived from the actual Hebrew manuscripts it translates. The inescapable logic is that the Hebrew text is primary since it is the one being translated. The original Hebrew documents written by the prophetic authors have primary or ultimate authority, what Jesus labelled as Moses, Prophets and the Psalms.

Everything must be fulfilled that is written about me in the Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms. (Luke 24:44)

So, it is clear that the LXX is not a separate authority from the Hebrew Bible, but derives its authority as it reflects and correctly draws out the meanings of the original text.

2. The LXX shows the messianic movement of God’s Story In the New Testament.

As seen above, the LXX was able to take the Hebrew language and draw out the richer implications of the words which would serve as a vehicle for the language of the New Testament. Even before Jesus the Messiah came to this earth, the Story of God’s Grace was advancing forward toward the Savior as seen in the LXX. This is further seen in how the Greek translators, on occasion, subtly transform their Hebrew source in ways that give a more personal glimpse of the Messiah. Here are some selected examples:

Genesis 49:10

In Genesis 49: 10, Jacob’s blessing on Judah reads from the Hebrew:

The scepter will not depart from Judah,
nor the ruler’s staff from between his feet,
until he to whom it belongs shall come and the obedience of the nations shall be his. (Genesis 49:10, NIV)

From the LXX it reads from the Greek:

A ruler shall not fail from Judah, nor a prince from his loins, until there come the things stored up for him; and he is the expectation of nations. (Genesis 49:10, LXX)

The Greek translator personifies the metaphor by substituting “ruler” for “scepter” and “prince” for “ruler’s staff.” This emphasis on the personal nature of the prophetic blessing sets the stage for other Jewish writings that interpret the prophecy with a messianic emphasis.

Isaiah 26:18

See, I lay a stone in Zion, a tested stone,
a precious cornerstone for a sure foundation;
the one who relies on it
will never be stricken with panic. (Isaiah 28:16, NIV)

This is important passage for messianic trajectory. (see 1 Peter 2:6) This trajectory is aided with the Greek translation, which reads:

I lay for the foundations of Zion a costly stone, a choice, a corner-stone, a precious stone, for its foundations; and he that believes on him shall by no means be ashamed. (Isaiah 28:16, LXX)

The Greek, as can be seen, adds the object of faith: “he that believes on him.” This personifies the stone as an object of faith, which— combined with the importance of Zion (Jerusalem) in the Old Testament— suggests that the translator understands the “stone” as a messianic metaphor.

Psalm 72:17

Development of the preexistence of the Messiah can be seen more clearly in the Greek translation, while the Hebrew Bible is less clear on this matter. Here are two Old Greek examples which suggest that the idea was developing within Judaism. First, Psalm 72, which is a hymn of praise to a messianic king, states in the Hebrew in v.17:

May his name endure forever;
may it continue as long as the sun. (Psalm 72:17, NIV)

The Greek, however, renders the second clause, “May his name endure prior to the sun.” This “prior to the sun” points in a temporal sense to preexistence.

Conclusion

As Paul writes in Galatians 4:4, when the fullness of time had come, God sent forth his Son, there was much that needed to occur before Jesus could come to this earth. One of the key developments in this unfolding Story of Grace was translation of the Septuagint.

Did God Command Genocide?

The modern era is filled with examples of genocide, the effort to wipe out an entire people group. There are Armenia, Cambodia, Sudan, Rwanda and Darfur. These are tragedies which are worthy of our sorrow and grief. And yet, some ask if the God of the Bible is really any better when He commanded the Israelites to wipe out all the Canaanites.

However, in the cities of the nations the Lord your God is giving you as an inheritance, do not leave alive anything that breathes. Completely destroy them—the Hittites, Amorites, Canaanites, Perizzites, Hivites and Jebusites—as the Lord your God has commanded you.

Deuteronomy 20:16-17

How do we understand God’s commandment to “completely destroy?” How could this be remotely compatible with the God who is loving and compassionate to all people? Admittedly, this is a challenging issue and question. To understand, it is necessary to frame this command in four perspectives.

Perspective # 1: The Canaanites had persisted in centuries of unthinkable acts of evil.

The Canaanite culture had a high degree of depravity and barbarism. The foremost act of depravity was infant sacrifice. Harvard Old Testament scholar and archaeologist, G. Earnest Wright explains, “Worship of these gods [Canaanite gods] carried with it some of the most demoralizing practices then in existence. Among them were child sacrifice, a practice long since discarded in Egypt and Babylonia…” Old Testament scholar Gordon Wenham writes, “Molech [a Canaanite god] sacrifices were offered especially in connection with vows and solemn promises, and children were sacrificed as the harshest and most binding pledge of the sanctity of a promise.”

The scriptural testimony affirms this:

Do not give any of your children to be sacrificed to Molek, for you must not profane the name of your God. I am the Lord…Do not defile yourselves in any of these ways, because this is how the nations that I am going to drive out before you became defiled. Even the land was defiled; so I punished it for its sin, and the land vomited out its inhabitants. But you must keep my decrees and my laws. The native-born and the foreigners residing among you must not do any of these detestable things, for all these things were done by the people who lived in the land before you, and the land became defiled.

Leviticus 18:21, 24-27

You must not worship the Lord your God in their way, because in worshiping their gods, they do all kinds of detestable things the Lord hates. They even burn their sons and daughters in the fire as sacrifices to their gods.

Deuteronomy 12:31

When you enter the land the Lord your God is giving you, do not learn to imitate the detestable ways of the nations there. Let no one be found among you who sacrifices their son or daughter in the fire… Anyone who does these things is detestable to the Lord; because of these same detestable practices the Lord your God will drive out those nations before you. You must be blameless before the Lord your God.

Deuteronomy 18:9-10, 12-13

Apologist Clay Jones explains how children were sacrificed to Molech:

Molech was a Canaanite underworld deity represented as an upright, bull-headed idol with human body in whose belly a fire was stoked and in whose outstretched arms a child was placed that would be burned to death…. And it was not just infants; children as old as four were sacrificed….A bronze image of Kronos was set up among them, stretching out its cupped hands above a bronze cauldron, which would burn the child. As the flame burning the child surrounded the body, the limbs would shrivel up and the mouth would appear to grin as if laughing, until it was shrunk enough to slip into the cauldron.

In Canaan there were, also, rampant acts of incest, rape and bestiality.

Perspective # 2: The judgment was not an ethnic cleaning but an ethical cleansing.

Referencing this as a genocide is inaccurate on several levels. At the most basic of them is that the term “genocide” is a compound word consisting of the words “race” (gene) and “killing” (cide). But this was not an ethnic cleansing in any way. First, the Canaanites and Israelites were closely related. Jonathan Laden, writing for the Biblical Archaeological Society, explains this intriguing discovery:

After examining the DNA of 93 bodies recovered from archaeological sites around the southern Levant, the land of Canaan in the Bible, researchers have concluded that modern populations of the region are descendants of the ancient Canaanites. Most modern Jewish groups and the Arabic-speaking groups from the region show at least half of their ancestry as Canaanite.

Second, God warned that the exact same judgement would come upon the Jews if they engaged in the same practices as the Canaanites.

And if you defile the land, it will vomit you out as it vomited out the nations that were before you.

Leviticus 18:28

Third, God spared non-Israelites who turned to him. The rescue of Rahab and her family shows that this judgment was not an ethnic cleansing. Moreover, when the Israelites renewed their covenant with God, we read that foreigners and native-born (Canaanites) were there:

All the Israelites, with their elders, officials and judges, were standing on both sides of the ark of the covenant of the Lord, facing the Levitical priests who carried it. Both the foreigners living among them and the native-born were there. Half of the people stood in front of Mount Gerizim and half of them in front of Mount Ebal, as Moses the servant of the Lord had formerly commanded when he gave instructions to bless the people of Israel.

Joshua 8:33

It is clear that if a Canaanite turned to God they were spared.

Perspective # 3: The Canaanites rejected peace and wanted war.

God waits patiently for people to turn to him, and he is slow to anger. This is shown to be core to God’s character.

And he passed in front of Moses, proclaiming, “The Lord, the Lord, the compassionate and gracious God, slow to anger, abounding in love and faithfulness, maintaining love to thousands, and forgiving wickedness, rebellion and sin. Yet he does not leave the guilty unpunished; he punishes the children and their children for the sin of the parents to the third and fourth generation.”

Exodus 34:6-7

God’s patience and forgiveness is affirmed through the entirety of scripture. In fact, God allowed the Israelites to suffer greatly in slavery for 400 years so that the Canaanites could have an opportunity to change. He didn’t judge them immediately because the sins of the Canaanites did not reach the “full measure.” The full measure means they went beyond the point of no return.

Then the Lord said to him, “Know for certain that for four hundred years your descendants will be strangers in a country not their own and that they will be enslaved and mistreated there…In the fourth generation your descendants will come back here, for the sin of the Amorites has not yet reached its full measure.”

Genesis 15:13, 16

Before the Israelites entered Canaan, they had seen the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah (Genesis 19:1-29) giving them clear evidence of what God can do. When the Hebrews were on the border of Canaan, the spies who were sent in heard this testimony from Rahab, showing there was an awareness of the power of God:

Before the spies lay down for the night, she went up on the roof and said to them, “I know that the Lord has given you this land and that a great fear of you has fallen on us, so that all who live in this country are melting in fear because of you. We have heard how the Lord dried up the water of the Red Sea for you when you came out of Egypt, and what you did to Sihon and Og, the two kings of the Amorites east of the Jordan, whom you completely destroyed. When we heard of it, our hearts melted in fear and everyone’s courage failed because of you, for the Lord your God is God in heaven above and on the earth below.“

Joshua 2:8-11

Before this, they had the ability to change, but at this point they were unwilling. Understanding the power of God, they refused to surrender.

Perspective # 4: Joshua didn’t engage in cruel and unusual practices.

This is the only offensive war that God ever commanded. All other wars in which Israel engaged were defensive. With that said there are three ways we can put this war in context.

Exaggerated Language: God’s command to “utterly destroy” is likely hyperbolic or exaggerated language. To utterly destroy means a comprehensive victory. Paul Copan uses the analogy of a modern sports fan saying that his team “slaughtered” or “killed” their opponents, which is not to be taken literally.

For example, Joshua 10:20 reads:

So Joshua and the Israelites defeated them completely, but a few survivors managed to reach their fortified cities.

God warned the Israelites not to intermarry with the Canaanites. But why would God command this if all of the Canaanites were “utterly destroyed?”

But if you turn away and ally yourselves with the survivors of these nations that remain among you and if you intermarry with them and associate with them, then you may be sure that the Lord your God will no longer drive out these nations before you.

Joshua 23:12-13

Surely these warnings would be useless unless the Canaanites were not utterly destroyed. This exaggerated language applies when it states that women and children are to be killed. There is not record of the destruction of women and children.

Removal not extermination: Some scholars point out that the goal was to drive out the Canaanites. If any fled, their lives would be spared; only those who remained would be killed. Notice the “drive them out” language:

Little by little I will drive them out before you, until you have increased enough to take possession of the land.

Exodus 23:30

As for all the inhabitants of the mountain regions from Lebanon to Misrephoth Maim, that is, all the Sidonians, I myself will drive them out before the Israelites. Be sure to allocate this land to Israel for an inheritance, as I have instructed you…

Joshua 13:6

Theologian and philosopher, William Lane Craig clarifies:

The Canaanite tribal kingdoms which occupied the land were to be destroyed as nation states, not as individuals. The judgment of God upon these tribal groups, which had become so incredibly debauched by that time, is that they were being divested of their land. Canaan was being given over to Israel…If the Canaanite tribes, seeing the armies of Israel, had simply chosen to flee, no one would have been killed at all. There was no command to pursue and hunt down the Canaanite peoples.

Restricted fighting: Old Testament scholar Richard Hess argues that the killing in the book of Joshua was restricted to military battles which did not involve civilians. While the accounts of the conquest of Jericho and Ai appear to involve the defeat of a settled city full of civilians, Hess shows how each part of this description could be interpreted in other ways. There is no archaeological evidence of civilian populations at Jericho or Ai. Given what we know about Canaanite life in the Bronze Age, Jericho and Ai were military strongholds.

Conclusion

This was in NO WAY a genocide. That label is a gross misrepresentation. This war was conducted in such a way that gave the Canaanites every chance to turn or flee. It was a war of last resort. God has never commanded a war like this before or since. It was done for the purposes to stop the spread of horrible evils and advance salvation to the world.