What the Story of Grace Is All About: An Excursus on Colossians 1:15–20

The Story of Grace, as a theological project, highlights how God reveals Himself through creation and redemption. The Triune God—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—unfolds a tale of love, inviting all things into communion with Him. This story is more than just history; it shows a purpose, supporting Jonathan Edwards’s idea that “the great end of all God’s works is the glory of God,” seen in the ongoing redemption of creation. Within this narrative, divine grace and human actions connect, emphasizing the need for faith and obedience in accepting God’s call. The various stories that emerge showcase different aspects of grace, linking to our own challenges and victories. By understanding grace, we see not only the larger story of redemption but also our roles in this divine journey, deepening our understanding of our relationships with God and one another.

Started in June 2023, this project explores early religion and the idea of divine economy (oikonomia) as explained by Irenaeus of Lyons, who viewed Christ’s redemptive work as a “recapitulation” (anakephalaiosis) of all creation, reversing Adam’s fall and restoring harmony in the Trinitarian life. Central to this is the early Christian hymn from Colossians 1:15–20, which Paul uses to declare Christ’s cosmic authority, interweaving protology (origins), soteriology (salvation), and eschatology (ultimate ends) into a unified tapestry of grace that shows the unity and diversity of God.

This hymn, resonant with the Wisdom traditions of Proverbs 8 and the Logos theology of John 1, declares:

¹⁵The Son is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation. ¹⁶For in him all things were created: things in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or powers or rulers or authorities; all things have been created through him and for him. ¹⁷He is before all things, and in him all things hold together. ¹⁸And he is the head of the body, the church; he is the beginning and the firstborn from among the dead, so that in everything he might have the supremacy. ¹⁹For God was pleased to have all his fullness dwell in him, ²⁰and through him to reconcile to himself all things, whether things on earth or things in heaven, by making peace through his blood, shed on the cross. (Colossians 1:15-20)

In this passage, the apostle presents a Trinitarian story where the Son, as the image of the Father, conveys the Father’s creative command and the Spirit’s life-giving presence, promoting shalom—a complete flourishing that looks forward to the new creation mentioned in Isaiah 65:17–25 and Revelation 21:1–5. This story highlights the deep connection between the three divine persons: they are united without losing their individuality, as Tertullian explained in Against Praxeas, describing the Trinity as “three persons, one substance,” distinct in their roles but unified in essence.

The implications for eschatology are significant: the Story of Grace ends with the idea that “God may be all in all” (1 Corinthians 15:28), a universal healing that mends the brokenness of sin and turns conflict into a harmonious unity that reflects the nature of the Trinity.

Three Truths of Story of Grace

Truth # 1: In God’s Story Jesus is Creator and Redeemer of all creation.

The Son is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation…And he is the head of the body, the church; he is the beginning and the firstborn from among the dead, so that in everything he might have the supremacy. (Colossians 1:15, 18)

Transcendence (God Above All) and Immanence (God Within All)

The term prōtotokos (firstborn) when referring to Christ highlights His unique position, not just in time but in essence. According to Karl Barth in Church Dogmatics (IV/1), Jesus is both the Creator and Redeemer, connecting the eternal with the present world.

Being the firstborn signifies not only Christ’s authority over all creation, similar to the “thrones or dominions” noted in Colossians 1:16, but also emphasizes His intimate relationship with all creation, filling it with divine life. This idea connects to Boethius’s view of eternity as “the simultaneous and complete possession of infinite life” in The Consolation of Philosophy, where eternity meets time through Christ’s life, making the invisible God (theos aoratos) truly present in our world. This dual nature of Christ also points to future renewal, as Athanasius mentions in On the Incarnation, “He became what we are that He might make us what He is,” meaning that humanity and creation are invited to share in God’s glory.

Romans 8:19–21 describes creation’s struggle as it waits for freedom from decay, leading to the “freedom of the glory of the children of God,” with Christ referred to as the “firstborn among many brothers and sisters” (Romans 8:29). Therefore, the resurrection starts a new age, where, as Jürgen Moltmann writes in The Coming of God, Christ brings about a “new creation” that redeems both people’s souls and the material world, suggesting a renewed environment filled with grace where decay gives way to lasting life.

Truth # 2: In God’s Story everything is being renewed into the likeness of the Trinity.

For in him all things were created: things in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or powers or rulers or authorities; all things have been created through him and for him. (Colossians 1:16)

Reciprocating Love From the Trinity

The prepositions “through” (dia) and “for” (eis) Christ describe a relationship based on the mutual love within the Trinity, where creation comes from the Father’s generous love for the Son, and is brought to life by the Spirit. As Charles Spurgeon said, “just as they are united in creation, they are united in salvation, working together as one God for our salvation.”

This reflects the harmonious unity and diversity of the Godhead, which Herman Bavinck refers to as the “archetype of man” and all creation, where “unity and diversity coexist without harming each other.“

Philosophically, this relates to Hegel’s concept of thesis-antithesis-synthesis, but reinterpreted in Christian terms as a peaceful harmony, where diversity enhances unity without conflict. Biblically, Ephesians 1:9–10 supports this idea: God “made known to us the mystery of his will… to unite all things in him, things in heaven and things on earth,” showing a Trinitarian coming together that opposes chaos with abundant life, as seen in Genesis 1’s repeated mentions of “all” and “every,” symbolizing God’s overflowing creativity (with 87 million species estimated today). In the future, this suggests a fulfilled order in Revelation 22:1–5, where the river of life flows from God’s throne and the Lamb, nurturing a restored creation in lasting communion, free from the curse (Genesis 3:17–19).

Truth # 3: In God’s Story redemption and renewal is universal in scope.

For God was pleased to have all his fullness dwell in him,and through him to reconcile to himself all things, whether things on earth or things in heaven, by making peace through his blood, shed on the cross. (Colossians 1:19-20)

The plērōma (fullness) that lives in Christ represents the complete nature of God (Colossians 2:9). It brings about a cosmic apokatallassō (reconciliation), as Irenaeus’s theory suggests: Christ “summed up all things in Himself,” restoring the broken universe.

This wide-reaching scope—covering “all things” (ta panta)—challenges ideas that focus only on humans for salvation, extending even to the suffering creation (Romans 8:22). John Piper emphasizes that “Jesus isn’t just the means. He is the great end,” the purpose of history.

Theologically, this connects with Augustine’s City of God, where grace changes selfishness into love for others, reflecting the Trinity’s unity (John 17:21–23). Looking to the future, Hebrews 1:2–3 describes Christ as heir and supporter, whose cleansing work points to the “world to come” (Hebrews 2:5), a renewed universe where “the wolf shall dwell with the lamb” (Isaiah 11:6), suggesting the end of harmful structures and the establishment of peace.

Implications of the Scope of God’s Story of Grace

First, God’s Story unfolds through salvation history. This means that God reveals Himself slowly over time, as Edwards suggests, allowing people to understand gradually without being overwhelmed. This helps them grow spiritually towards the ultimate vision. The story of Israel—from slavery in Egypt to freedom (Exodus 19–20), judges to kings (1 Samuel 8–2 Samuel 7), and exile to recovery (Ezra 1–6)—shows God’s qualities: grace, greatness, and loyalty. It all leads to Christ, who says, “Whoever has seen me has seen the Father” (John 14:9). This history points to the end times, where people can see God’s ultimate glory (1 John 3:2).

Secondly, God’s Story unfolds through the nations. Acts 17:26–27 tells us that God sets times and places “that they should seek God,” guiding cultural strengths towards a reflection of God’s nature. For example, Athenian democracy, developed from its unique conditions, sports, and theater, encourages unity in diversity, which is further enhanced by the inclusive values of Christianity (Galatians 3:28). This idea comes together in Revelation 7:9–10, portraying a diverse group worshiping Jesus, fulfilling God’s promise to Abraham (Genesis 12:3) in a beautiful diversity.

Third, God’s Story touches all cultural expressions. Language, stories, ideas, social connections, and artifacts can all be used for divine purposes. For instance, the Phoenician alphabet and papyrus allowed the creation of the Hebrew Scriptures, with “Bible” coming from Byblos, showing God’s guiding hand in history. In the end, this hints at a renewed way of understanding in the new Jerusalem, where “the leaves of the tree are for the healing of the nations” (Revelation 22:2), turning cultural creations into tools for eternal connection.

Conclusion

This project, developed over thirty years and starting in 2023, aims to understand God’s redemptive influence, bringing joy to life within the Trinitarian story. Just as Edwards’s unfinished work inspires modern extensions like Gerald McDermott’s A New History of Redemption, the Spirit—seen in Colossians 1:8–9—enables participation in divine glory (John 17:5). In this Story of Grace, the unity and diversity of creation reflect the Trinity, moving toward a future where all is made new, continuously echoing the Father’s love through the Son in the Spirit.

How Alexander the Great Prepared the Advance Christianity (Daniel 8:1-21)

**Wall Painting of Alexander the Great**

Alexander the Great (356 BC – 323 BC) was a world historical force with “god-like” powers to shift the entire directions of nations and continents. In a period of 12 years he conquered the Persian Empire which spanned from Egypt to India and extended his conquests to cover approximately 2 million square miles. He achieved legendary victories in some of the most epic battles which displayed a tactical brilliance of extraordinary skill. As a result he spread the culture and language of the Greeks which would pave the way eventually for the Roman Empire and allow for the rapid advance of Christianity 300 years later. In this article and the next articles we will see how God, in His Story of Grace, used Alexander to expand civilization after the trinitarian image of bringing increased unity (the one) among the nations which carried with it the idea of individual freedom (the many). We will also see that Alexander’s record is tragically mixed.

In this article we will look at Alexander from the perspective of biblical prophecy in Daniel 8. We will understand that the large scale events of history and the world are under God’s hand to accomplish His Story of Grace.

Daniel’s Vision

Daniel received a prophecy regarding the overthrow of the Persian Empire and the advance of the Greek Empire around 553-554 B.C., approximately 200 years before it unfolded. The language is apocalyptic (which means to “unveil”). It opens up the curtain of what is seen so that we may peer beyond what we naturally see to understand bigger realities shaping world events. To do this it uses ideas and concepts we do understand to reveal concepts and ideas we do not as easily understand. Daniel is given the vision of a ram with two horns (representing Persia) and a goat with one horn between its eyes (representing Greece and the conquest of Alexander). The vision reads as follows:

¹In the third year of King Belshazzar’s reign, I, Daniel, had a vision, after the one that had already appeared to me. ²In my vision I saw myself in the citadel of Susa in the province of Elam; in the vision I was beside the Ulai Canal. ³I looked up, and there before me was a ram with two horns, standing beside the canal, and the horns were long. One of the horns was longer than the other but grew up later. ⁴I watched the ram as it charged toward the west and the north and the south. No animal could stand against it, and none could rescue from its power. It did as it pleased and became great.⁵As I was thinking about this, suddenly a goat with a prominent horn between its eyes came from the west, crossing the whole earth without touching the ground. ⁶It came toward the two-horned ram I had seen standing beside the canal and charged at it in great rage. ⁷I saw it attack the ram furiously, striking the ram and shattering its two horns. The ram was powerless to stand against it; the goat knocked it to the ground and trampled on it, and none could rescue the ram from its power. ⁸The goat became very great, but at the height of its power the large horn was broken off, and in its place four prominent horns grew up toward the four winds of heaven.

The vision is interpreted for Daniel by Gabriel the angel. The interpretation reads as follows:

¹⁵While I, Daniel, was watching the vision and trying to understand it, there before me stood one who looked like a man. ¹⁶And I heard a man’s voice from the Ulai calling, “Gabriel, tell this man the meaning of the vision.” ¹⁷As he came near the place where I was standing, I was terrified and fell prostrate. “Son of man,” he said to me, “understand that the vision concerns the time of the end.” ¹⁸While he was speaking to me, I was in a deep sleep, with my face to the ground. Then he touched me and raised me to my feet. ¹⁹He said: “I am going to tell you what will happen later in the time of wrath, because the vision concerns the appointed time of the end. ²⁰The two-horned ram that you saw represents the kings of Media and Persia. ²¹The shaggy goat is the king of Greece, and the large horn between its eyes is the first king.

These identifiers by Gabriel point to the fact that the Ram represents Media (elite rulers of Babylon) and Persia (who overtakes Media). There are, then, several ways this vision demonstrates the spiritual realities behind Alexander the Great and the advance of Greek culture.

Meaning # 1: Alexander’s Rapid Power

a goat with a prominent horn between its eyes came from the west, crossing the whole earth without touching the ground. (Daniel 8:5)

The Macedonians, from which Alexander came, were called “goat people.” Commentator Joseph Benson explains:

This is because, according to one report, their first king was commanded by the oracle to take the goats for his guides to empire. Afterward, seeing a herd of goats flying from a violent storm, he followed them to Edessa, and there fixed the seat of his empire, made the goats his ensigns, or standards, and called the city The Goats’ Town.

After 13 years he conquered an empire that stretched from the Balkans to northern India with his armies travelling some 20,000 miles. Through this he fought 20 major battles with no losses; he named 70 cities after himself, conquering an area spanning three continents covering approximately two million square miles.

Meaning # 2: Alexander’s Ruthless and Total Conquest

⁶It came toward the two-horned ram I had seen standing beside the canal and charged at it in great rage. ⁷I saw it attack the ram furiously, striking the ram and shattering its two horns. The ram was powerless to stand against it; the goat knocked it to the ground and trampled on it, and none could rescue the ram from its power. (Daniel 8:6-7)

When the vision describes “the goat knocked it to the ground and trampled in it,” this describes the ruthless and complete nature of the conquest over Persia. At the battle of Issus, Darius offered concessions of land for peace. Alexander wanted more than concessions; he wanted to be recognized as sole ruler of the Persian territories. Darius was unwilling, and so Alexander mercilessly crushed Persia. In the ensuing battle there are claims that the Greek army killed up to 100,000 in the battle. If this number is true, it would amounted to 200 to 300 men killed a minute for 8 hours. This one battle is illustrative of how this world conqueror brought a level of carnage and destruction which the world had never seen. Historical scholar of Greek antiquity, Victor Davis Hanson, estimates that his armies may, in all of their battles combined, have killed around 1,000,000.

Meaning # 3: Civil War and Division

The goat became very great, but at the height of its power the large horn was broken off, and in its place four prominent horns grew up toward the four winds of heaven. (Daniel 8:8)

At this great peak, Alexander’s life comes to a sudden end. This is represented in Daniel 8:8 as a “large horn was broken off.” How he died “at the height of his power,” with millions upon millions as his subjects, is uncertain. Some theories are infectious disease, poisoning, or alcoholism. The definitive cause(s) are not known. What is known is that he had no successor. This then led to an eruption of civil strife which led to the Wars of Diadochi (meaning successor). These wars lasted almost for half a century (roughly 322-275 BC) and involved multiple battles and alliances. The most prominent figures in the battles were Antigonus, Cassander, Ptolemy, and Seleucus. These are the four prominent horns in Daniel 8:8. That they grew up toward the four winds of heaven means they eventually carved out their own kingdoms in what became known as the Hellenistic period. (The word “Hellen” means Greek.) This division resulted in the formation of separate powerful and independent kingdoms:

Ptolemaic Kingdom: Ptolemy established control over Egypt and its surrounding territories.

Seleucid Empire: Seleucus took control of the eastern regions, including Persia and Mesopotamia.

Antigonid Kingdom: Antigonus and later his descendants ruled over Macedonia and Greece.

Other: Lysimachus controlled part of Asia Minor and Cassander controlled part of Greece which Antigonus did not.

This is described in a later chapter of Daniel, as well:

³Then a mighty king will arise, who will rule with great power and do as he pleases. ⁴After he has arisen, his empire will be broken up and parceled out toward the four winds of heaven. It will not go to his descendants, nor will it have the power he exercised, because his empire will be uprooted and given to others. (Daniel 11:3-4)

A Monumental Shift in Civilization

We will look at the negative implications of Alexander’s conquests in a later article. Yet, the fact is that God used Alexander the Great to prepare the way for advancing His Story of Grace.

Greek Language: Because of Alexander the Great, the Greek language became the common or business language from Egypt to India. Each territory had its own native language, but each one learned to speak Greek. This allowed for rapid communication since the world was able to speak a common tongue. It is for this reason that over 300 years later after Alexander the 27 books of the New Testament was penned in Greek. Everyone could read this and have access to the New Testament letters.

Greek Culture: Not only was there the spread of Greek language, but there was also the spread of art, architecture, philosophy, and political ideas across a vast area. Greek culture did not replace existing cultures but blended with them. This was monumental because it was the first time in which there was a international blending of one culture into many different ones. A result of this is that in many ways Christianity became a blend of Jewish and Greek cultures. Because of the migration of Greek culture to the East, it would forever shape Christian thinking and practice. This is seen first and foremost in the doctrine of Logos (John 1:1) which would lead to our understanding of the Trinity, with the Son at the eternal Logos of the Father.

Other: The spread of Greek culture made possible by Alexander had impacts on political structures, art, architecture, travel, commerce, science and medicine. These would lay a foundation for the growth of what would become the Roman Empire.

Conclusion

What is most noteworthy was that Daniel prophesied the advance of Alexander and the spread of Hellenism. Daniel did not use the name (Alexander) or the term (Hellenism). This was beyond the scope of his prophesy. His purpose was not to focus on the seen realities but to address the unseen spiritual realities behind the seen ones. As Daniel write earlier in his book:

He changes times and seasons;
he deposes kings and raises up others.
He gives wisdom to the wise
and knowledge to the discerning. (Daniel 2:21)

Aristotle’s Chain of Being and the “Kinds” of Genesis

God has built the desire in humans to understand and classify nature. This was one of original man’s first tasks in the Garden of Eden according to Genesis:

Now the Lord God had formed out of the ground all the wild animals and all the birds in the sky. He brought them to the man to see what he would name them; and whatever the man called each living creature, that was its name. So the man gave names to all the livestock, the birds in the sky and all the wild animals. (Genesis 2:19-20)

Yet, since the rebuilding of the earth after the Flood, this task of the classification of nature was not systematically taken up until Aristotle. Though Aristotle’s work in zoology was not without errors; in God’s Story of Grace, the great philosopher provided the grandest biological system of the time which forwarded humanity’s understanding of the great order and variety of the created world. His observations were so wide ranging to include the anatomy of marine invertebrates; the minute details the embryological development of a chick, and even the internal anatomy of snails. He went into such variety to describe the chambered stomachs of cows to the social organization of bees. Some of his observations were not confirmed until many centuries later.

As a philosopher, Aristotle is largely known for his instruction in logic, ethics and virtue. Yet, his work on the biological order of life left an enduring mark on the advancement of scientific understanding. Before Aristotle, philosophers like Heraclitus, Empedocles and Democritus focused on offering quasi-scientific explanations of the physical universe based on philosophical ideas. Aristotle largely discarded that and sought to base his views of the world on painstaking observation. What drove him to do this extremely detailed and complex work was his belief that all of nature has a logical purpose and order which could be studied and understood. This belief in a logical order and purpose of the world was grounded in his theology (belief about God). Theology, for Aristotle, was an invitation to biology. Studying living things was a way to understand the divine nature. In even in the most most humble of animals, Aristotle reasoned, there is order and beauty that reflected a divine reality.

In this article, the second on Aristotle, we will uncover the order of Aristotle’s discoveries and how his theology drove those discoveries. We will then conclude how he advanced God’s Story of Grace in the area of science.

Aristotle’s Science

Aristotle was the first to conceive of a great chain of being among all living things. He took his observations of living things and ranked them based on complexity. The greater the complexity the higher its place of the great scale of being. For example, he distinguished animals from plants, because animals have a consciousness and can move in their surroundings. Among animals he created a hierarchy based on their complexity. He separated vertebrates from invertebrates. Of the vertebrates he included five genera (a classification of common characteristics bearing similarities to the biblical “kind”). These include:

mammals
birds
reptiles and amphibians,
fish
whales (which Aristotle did not realize were mammals).

The invertebrates were classified as:

cephalopods (such as squid and octopus)
crustaceans
insects
shelled animals

In total, he classified about 500 animals, vertebrae and invertebrate, into the genera listed above. As already mentioned he classified plants, as well.

What Motivated Aristotle?

Aristotle saw organisms as having an inherent structure and purpose which leads to the overall function of the organism. This structure and purpose he called “soul.” By this he did not mean an immaterial identity separate from the physical/biological structure. The soul for Aristotle is the function of the physical organism inseparable from the body. By this definition even plants have souls. Because of this he believed all living things could be classified because all living things have a purposeful function (soul). So, where did this inherent purpose come from? The answer for this monumental thinker is God.

His understanding of God was not the same as the God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob or the Jews. There are some similarities, but the differences are significant.

Similarities:

God is the highest being over all other beings.
God is pure purpose, existing without matter.
God is the unmoved mover, the first cause of motion in the universe.
God is the source of order and purpose in the world.
God is eternal.

Differences:

God is not personal.
God does not have a plan for us.
God is not affected by us.

What does all of this mean?

The advancement of science is driven by faith.

Aristotle did not come to believe that the world has purpose and order because of science; rather, he believed that the world had purposeful order, so he pursued a scientific understanding. His theology drove his science. Without the prior belief, he would have had no basis or motivation to do the meticulous research he did. It was clear to him that all of nature did not function by random chance, and that there is an order to be discovered. Everything which is purposeful necessarily is based on purposeful (intelligent) action. For example, imagine two men surprisingly meeting in a clothing store who happen to know each other, and in the process of meeting they strike up a conversation leading toward a business deal. The chance occurrence was based upon their prior and purposeful choices to go to the clothing store to buy a shirt (or whatever item). Chance occurrences, as we observe them, all occur from goal oriented or purposeful action not the other way around. Spontaneity and chance come after thoughtful purpose.

Aristotle sums it up well in his work, Physics:

Spontaneity and chance, therefore, are posterior (follow) to intelligence and nature. Hence, however true it may be that the heavens are due to spontaneity, it will still be true that intelligence and nature will be prior causes of this All and of many things in it besides.

Purposeful design and unguided evolution have an ancient contrast.

It is important to realize that Aristotle’s view of the purposeful order of nature was not at all taken for granted in the intellectual climate of the Greek world he inhabited. Aristotle references, in his work, Empedocles (495–435 BC), who proposed that nature consists of a primordial state where different organs and parts of animals were accidentally and randomly combined in different configurations. Empedocles thought that these early creatures were monstrous and unfit for life, and that most died out. He believed that the remaining creatures who survived were the result of natural selection, which removed the freakish creatures and left the ones that were best adapted to the environment. This is an early version of survival of the fittest. Those configurations which were most fitting survived, while others perished. Empedocles wrote as follows:

From it [the earth] blossomed many faces without necks,
Naked arms wandered about, bereft of shoulders,
And eyes roamed about alone, deprived of brows.
Many grew double of face and double of chest,
Races of man-prowed cattle, while others sprang up inversely,
Creatures of cattle-headed men, mixed here from men,
There creatures of women fitted with shadowy genitals.

Philosopher and theologian, Joe Carini, comments on how modern science confirms the viewpoint of Aristotle over Empedocles.

…our world is not at all like the world Empedocles imagined. Instead, we encounter a world replete with bodies that have a highly complex but ordered and functional arrangement of their parts. What is more, each of these bodies is self-reproducing, by a system that itself is highly complex but ordered and functional. Even more, these bodies exhibit engineering down to the molecular level, with parts so exquisitely ordered to a purpose that they easily surpass the best of engineering done by humans.

The advance of science confirmed revelation in scripture.

In Genesis 1 it describes a biological categorization similar to what Aristotle discovered by using the word kind. We see the designation kind used three times relation to vegetation and plant life:

¹¹Then God said, “Let the land produce vegetation: seed-bearing plants and trees on the land that bear fruit with seed in it, according to their various kinds.” And it was so. ¹²The land produced vegetation: plants bearing seed according to their kinds and trees bearing fruit with seed in it according to their kinds. And God saw that it was good. (Genesis 1:11-12)

Then we see the designation of kind used six times in reference to animal life:

²⁰And God said, “Let the water teem with living creatures, and let birds fly above the earth across the vault of the sky.” ²¹So God created the great creatures of the sea and every living thing with which the water teems and that moves about in it, according to their kinds, and every winged bird according to its kind. And God saw that it was good. ²²God blessed them and said, “Be fruitful and increase in number and fill the water in the seas, and let the birds increase on the earth.” ²³And there was evening, and there was morning—the fifth day. ²⁴And God said, “Let the land produce living creatures according to their kinds: the livestock, the creatures that move along the ground, and the wild animals, each according to its kind.” And it was so. ²⁵God made the wild animals according to their kinds, the livestock according to their kinds, and all the creatures that move along the ground according to their kinds. And God saw that it was good. (Genesis 1:20-25)

The term “kind” refers to broad categories of genetically related organisms which can breed and reproduce. This “kind” in Genesis has a nonchanging “fixity” within the design of the biological order. Kinds do not change. This means, for example, that the canine “kind” which includes the dog or dingo or wolf or jackal can reproduce together because they are members of the same canine kind. The canine kind can adapt into different species within their kind through breeding and environmental influences (e.g., chihuahua), but they do not change into another kind like a feline (cat).

Paul writes:

For since the creation of the world God’s invisible qualities—his eternal power and divine nature—have been clearly seen, being understood from what has been made…
Romans 1:20

Aristotle wisely helped us to understand this.

Socrates: Bringing Heaven to Earth

Even among world historical figures, Socrates would be uncommon. His life was marked by an irony which brought together opposing qualities. He rarely travelled beyond Athens, yet his influence has been felt throughout the world. Though he was often invited to lavish dinner parties, he lived on a very simple diet. Possessing a towering intellectual capacity, he was more at home with everyday people. Though he wrote down none of his teachings, we possess about 35 of his dialogs. Some aspects of his life remain unclear, but what doesn’t is that his influence is impossible to overestimate. His crowning achievement in advancing God’s Story of Grace is that he took philosophy (the pursuit of wisdom) and brought it into reach for everyday people and everyday life to improve the quality of how they–even we–live. He did this because it was, as he believed, his calling from God. In so doing, he made the well-lived life something which was more possible for everyone to attain.

In this article, we will look at Socrates impact at the time he lived and how his influence moved the world further in God’s plan.

Who Was Socrates?

His Life

He lived from 469–399 B.C. He lived his whole life in Athens, other than when he travelled in the military. At its height his native city had a population of around 180,000 is 430 B.C. By his death it was reduced to about 100,000 due, in part, to ongoing war with Sparta. As a man of Athens he fought bravely in the wars with the Spartans. His friend Alcibiades said that Socrates saved his life when he was wounded by standing over him and warding off enemy attack. He was reported to be fierce in battle. There is, also, some evidence he may have been a stone mason since his father was. But his primary calling and life’s work was that he became a prophet to the Athenian people. He founded no academy like his pupil Plato. He never sought out a public platform, but instead he chose to live very simply with few clothes, meager food and basic shelter–even rejecting the gift of land which was offered to him. He felt the call of God (as he understood God) to call men to examine the meaning and purpose of their lives. Historian Paul Johnson states that he “compared himself to a gadfly, stinging the Athenian horse of state…out of its complacency and comatose inertia.” He engaged in discussions with all kinds of people concerning topics like friendship, justice, courage, citizenship, etc. He believed his most important contribution to Athenian society was to call people to virtue for only with virtuous people can a society flourish.

His Death

Overtime he became a well-known public figure. This increasing attention was not always positive. The playwright Aristophanes made a satirical and mocking drama titled The Clouds which portrayed Socrates as a money greedy corruptor of youth. This play had a negative impact on his reputation with some of the Athenian public. He remained unangered, responding: “If the criticism is just, I must try to reform myself. If it is untrue, it doesn’t matter.” Eventually jealous political forces had him arrested and convicted of presenting “different gods” and “corrupting the youth.” After being tried in a kangaroo court he was sentenced to be executed. He is famously remembered for his calm and magnanimous embrace of death, speaking to his friends about the virtuous and good life until his very last day.

What Set Socrates Apart?

He was led by God. He rejected the myth centered polytheism (belief in many gods) of his day. Like Heraclitus, he did not really criticize or show contempt for the traditional gods of the Greek world, but he did not reverence or follow them; further he called people to think beyond them. He appears to have been a monotheist who believed there is only one God. For this Athenian teacher, belief in God was not an abstract idea but a strongly felt reality. He once said, “Athenians, I cherish and you. But I shall obey God rather than you.” On another occasion he professed, “To practice philosophy has been indicated to me by God…” He felt this through such means as dreams, prophecies and other means.

His belief in divinity was also in sharp distinction to one of his sharpest debating partners, Protagoras, who gave the famous adage: “Man is the measure of all things.” As a materialist, Protagoras taught materialism which is the belief that there is nothing more than physical reality. Socrates rejected this because of his own experience as well as his belief that our deeper moral commitments require a deeper resource or basis than merely ourselves.

He believed all humans possessed an immaterial soul. He taught that the body needed to be guided by the soul. The idea of the soul was not new, but after Socrates’ the concept of the soul would be forever changed. Before the great thinker, the soul had been viewed as a ghostlike and shadowy substance which eventually gets banished to a murky existence of hades after the death of the body. After Socrates the soul was seen as the core of human intelligence, meaning and morality. With a proper philosophical understanding and training in wisdom the soul can guide one’s life to virtue and a well-lived existence. With his examination of the soul and the inner life of man, he would open the way eventually to the study of psychology.

He held to and promoted moral absolutes. For example, it was exceptional that he advocated that retaliation or revenge is always wrong. He instructed an early version of “turn the other cheek.” In Greece it was largely thought that a just man is one who does good to his friends and harm to his enemies. Socrates would have none of this. In Plato’s Republic, Socrates is quoted saying: “A just man is one who does good to his friends, certainly, but also does good to those who have harmed him, thereby seeking to convert an enemy into friend.”

He lived among the common men. At this time, Athenian Greece was singular in the world because a craftsman might become a general, a wrestler a philosopher, a poet could found a colony. Though there was an aristocracy, the man of common means could still excel. Paul Johnson asserted that just as Winston Churchill perfectly reflected the spirit of Great Britain, Socrates perfectly reflected the democratic spirit of ancient Athens. He got along with all kinds of people from different classes and backgrounds, highest to lowest. He had a genuine curiosity in people. This interest he showed made people feel important, and it helped to strengthen the democratic character of the city.

Socrates Advance of God’s Story

Socrates brought the LOGOS (WORD) closer to men. In Acts 17, some 450 years after Socrates, Paul stood at the Areogapus (meeting place for political councils in Athens), the very place Socrates often deliberated. It was there that Greek philosophers wanted Paul to make a public case for his “strange ideas” (Acts 17:20) for which he was advocating. Paul, then, gives a masterclass in building a missional communication bridge with a different culture. In his introduction, one can see hints of his drawing upon Socrates’ influence as he references “an unknown god.”

²²Paul then stood up in the meeting of the Areopagus and said: “People of Athens! I see that in every way you are very religious. ²³For as I walked around and looked carefully at your objects of worship, I even found an altar with this inscription: to an unknown god. So you are ignorant of the very thing you worship—and this is what I am going to proclaim to you.

Acts 17:22-23

Athens worshiped many gods, but Socrates did not. Athenians accepted their religious traditions, often without question. Socrates did not. He advocated a god that was not known. Perhaps it was this “unknown god” of Acts 17 Paul proclaims. Perhaps this is the LOGOS which was first proclaimed by Heraclitus, nearly 100 years before Socrates, and would eventually be declared by the apostle John, when he declared Jesus to be the Word (LOGOS) in John 1:1. As I wrote in a previous article:

LOGOS, which means Word or Speech, communicates the idea that we see indirectly an intelligible rationality behind the universe. It does so in the fact that words, whether heard through the ear (speech) or seen through the eye (writing), shows the evidence of an intentional and intelligible presence, even when we do not see a person present. This evidence of intentionality and intelligence, logically, points to a personal being behind all of this–God. Though this creative and personal being is not directly seen, his speech is. In the midst of the chaos of the world, there is behind all of it an ordered logic (e.g., math and science) and appearance of a creative purpose (e.g., love and justice). The Bible affirms this in both the Old and New Testaments.

This is seen in the Old Testament.

¹The heavens declare the glory of God;
    the skies proclaim the work of his hands.
²Day after day they pour forth speech;
    night after night they reveal knowledge.
³They have no speech, they use no words;
    no sound is heard from them. (Psalm 19:1-3)

Of those outside the Hebrew world, Socrates appeared to grasp this better than anyone before him and made this reality more accessible to the Greek and gentile world.

Socrates made a life of purposeful moral living more accessible to the common man. He is famous for saying, “The unexamined life is not worth living.” The ancient philosopher modeled how everyday men could think through moral questions and issues to live a more wise and virtuous life. Perhaps the Roman statemen Cicero best summed up the great sage’s contribution to the world historical development best:

“Socrates was the first to call philosophy down from the heavens and to place it in cities, and even to introduce it into homes and compel it to inquire about
life and standards and goods and evils.”
Cicero

For this, we can have much gratitude to Socrates for bringing the truths given by heaven more closely to us on the earth.

Greek Tragedy and the Sustaining of Democracy

In the emerging democracy of Greece of the fifth century B.C., a newly created art form of theater helped to cultivate attitudes and foster education which advanced a democratic spirit: “a government of the people, by the people and for the people.” Democracy requires a lot of hard work. The simple idea of “one person, one vote,” is hardly sufficient. If citizens who have that vote are not correctly taught or informed how to think about the larger issues related to matters they are voting on, then it will be misdirected. Furthermore, when dissent or differing viewpoints of fellow citizens are not respected, then democracy will descend into a division of the many (majority opinion) against the few (minority opinion), sometimes leading to mob action–or more extreme–civil war. For the newly birthed democratic revolution in Greece–which had no other country to serve as an example–it was vital that there would be a venue in popular culture to both educate in matters related to the state and encourage toleration of differing views. The avenue which developed was the theater where plays known as tragedies were performed. It was in this setting that as many as twenty thousand people would gather in an amphitheater, and the stories of playwrights would be acted out.

In this article we will examine how the theater with its tragedies helped to sustain the spirit and practice of democracy in ancient Greece. This art form deepened the Story of Grace in which God matured humanity to become more like the Trinity where personal dialog and mutual understanding were increased in order to maintain a life-giving unity.

The Birth of Tragedy

Theater and the Promotion of Democracy

Here are four ways that Greek tragedies helped to promote and nurture democracy:

An Image of Aeschylus, the Greek Tragedy Writer

The first theaters with plays were produced and performed in Athens. These plays were known as tragedies because they emphasized the inevitability of a heroic downfall because of the fragility of human limits and moral error (pride, anger, lust, etc.). Emerging in the wake of Athens’ democratic revolution, people could identify with these plays because Greece had arisen from tremendous amounts of conflict and loss. Further, (like today) they could take comfort that their heroes were all too human like they were. These plays demonstrated anew the fragile balance between order and chaos which grew from the aftermath of the democratic revolution. So popular were these tragedies that over a thousand were produced in the fifth century B.C. Today we only possess some thirty of them which were composed by three authors: Sopholocles, Euripides and (who) The Greek experience was critical because they founded democracy at a time when it had never existed.

Four Ways Greek Theater Cultivated Democracy

Plays nurtured a common civic culture. The outdoor amphitheaters in ancient Greek city-states were places citizens would gather together from different classes and backgrounds as equals. They sat next to each other and participated in the same grand experience. In this setting social walls were broken down, and they came together as one people. For democracy to work the citizens must acknowledge that other citizens are our equals and are entitled to an equal say. This view point is not natural and has to be nurtured in order to be maintained.
Plays encouraged citizens to engage in deeper conversations. After watching plays, citizens would often have more in-depth conversations about moral and political issues which impacted all people. If democracy was to function well, citizens must do a lot of thinking and talking about moral issues related to their political life. As storytellers and as political philosophers, the tragedians educated theater audiences in vital issues. They structured their plots around conflicts of law and justice, mortal men and divine gods, male and female, family and the state, the insiders and outcasts. This exposed the audience to the issues which impact the real nature of debate, dialog and disagreement which occur within democracy.
Plays modeled dialogue. With their often-used rapid form of question-and-answer dialogue to explore issues, plays showed how conversations needed to take place. To learn this skill was essential to the deliberation which was required in democracy. It modeled for them, in certain instances (like Aeschylus’ Oresteia), how to embrace civility in difference and dissent, creating a more open society.
Plays challenged ideas which threatened democracy. For example, in Sophocles’ famous tragedy Antigone, revolves around the question of political supremacy. Pericles, the great Athenian democratic ruler, initiated new policies which elevated political allegiance to the state above all else, including above the allegiances owed to individuals and to one’s family. The all important theme of the power of the state in relation to the individual and family is undertaken. In the Suppliants by Aeschylus, tells the story of fifty fictional women, having fled their homeland of Egypt, pleaded for asylum in a Greek city-state. These suppliants were outsiders in every sense of the word. Yet as women, and as foreigners, they were determined to be treated with state protection and dignity in a land where such a fundamental right was denied to foreigners. (This is an ever relevant discussion in many parts of the world today.) Prometheus Bound concerns the role of the limits of human advancement; Oedipus Rex relates to the power of authority and the fall pride brings, just to name a few. All of these topics, among others, were (and still are) urgently important to think about when it comes participation in the life of the state as a responsible citizen.

The Enduring Legacy

Tragedy is still alive for the very reason that it relates to the challenges of our human condition. We are a mix of heroic action and mortal deceit. We attain great heights of achievement only to be toppled by inevitable flaws. This is why today film with tragic themes like The God Father, Titanic, Breaking Bad or Batman are so popular. There are two ways that God advanced his Story of Grace through theater.

In Greek tragedy, humanity more clearly sees its need for grace. The work of God’s grace to mature humanity through the millenniums has been remarkable given humanity’s tragic fallenness. Only God’s grace could overcome the level of brokenness which sin has brought. But this maturing has been a work of grace, in which God’s power guided by love, is progressively overcoming humanity’s sin and depth of brokenness. God, in his grace, has led humanity to such discoveries as language (Babel), navigation (Phoenicians), science (Medes), and now democracy (Greeks). As Paul wonderfully declares:

“But where sin increased, God’s grace increased even more.”
Romans 5:20

Greek tragedy showed the inevitability of sin. For the Greeks, this was their power of the law to show humanity of his need to be delivered from the tragic implications of human selfishness. Yet, the tragic nature of tragedy is just that, it provides no answers to the broken human condition. This deliverance will be ultimately discovered in the life and death and resurrection of Christ.

In Greek tragedy, humanity sees more of the value and viewpoints of others. This creates more of a spirit of toleration. As the audience watched the plays, they experienced a deep sense of pathos (Greek word for suffering) which stirred emotions for the plays character such as sorrow, joy, elation, fear. These made the stories engaging and relatable. These emotions which were wedded to moral lessons helped the Greeks to think and to feel in greater moral categories. Aristotle wrote that this was very healthy for a community. In this new art form, the dynamic and interchangeable love within the Trinity is more fully realized at a larger scale. This identification with one another is more fully reflected in the life of the Trinity which is mirrored in the church. Paul expressed it as follows:

“If one part suffers, every part suffers with it; if one part is honored,
every part rejoices with it.“
1 Corinthians 12:26

Salamis and the Miraculous Battle For Freedom

So rarely has the consequential unfolding of history been so on the line as the Battle of Salamis (480 B.C.). On this battle held the fate and destiny of Western Civilization itself. On the one side is the massive Persian military under Xerxes with an army considered the largest ever assembled-2,641,000 fighting men, according to Herodotus. Humorously he tells us that when “Xerxes armies drank the whole river ran dry.” The mass of this army is not surprising given that the Persian Empire, the largest to have ever existed at the time, had 70 million inhabitants living within 1 million square miles. This colossal power was intent on crushing the often warring and fractious Greek city-states which had 2 million inhabitants bordered in 50,000 square miles. The Persians were affluent with nearly unlimited resources in contrasts to the Greeks who, by comparison, were poor. This supersedes by any measure a David and Goliath analogy. At stake in this confrontation is the furtherance of personal freedom toward self-determination (represented by Greece), and the authoritarian and absolute rule over the masses by a very few (represented by Persia). In this battle is the literal determination of whether people will be able to form more closely into the image of the Trinity, where there is a heightened empowerment to personal freedom leading to a greater communal unity.

David (Greece) vs. Goliath (Persia)

Cyrus the Great led the Persian Empire into its rapid expansion starting in 550 B.C. Before Cyrus, Persia was a small state under the control of the Medes (an ancient Iranian people). But as the map shows, Cyrus controlled most of modern day Iran, parts of Turkey and Mesopotamia by 540 B.C. This is all in one decade. Five kings and fifty years later, by 490 B.C., the Empire expands to more than 2 million square mile (as seen by the map below)–the largest the world has ever known.

Now with Xerxes (485-465 B.C.) in power, his aim is to expand their territory into Greece, which is at the furthest edge of their northeastern border. Xerxes father, Darius (522-486 B.C.) sought to conquer Greece in the Battle of Marathon (490 B.C.). This resulted in a major defeat for the Persians. Xerxes followed his father as monarch and inherited his father’s burden of expanding the Empire toward Greece. To accomplish what Darius had been unable to do, Xerxes inherited the largest and best equipped army at the time. With four years of preparation, in 480 B.C., he headed off to Greece with approximately 1 million men, along with an elite force of 10,000 warriors known as the immortals. It was here that Xerxes would conquer much of mainland Greece, even conquering and burning the great city of Athens, whose 10,000 men were no match for the invading horde. With victory over all of Greece assuredly in his grasps, Xerxes heads toward the isthmus of Salamis.

He is deceptively lured there by Themistocles. This ruse was led by the Greek general, Themistocles. From a young age he prepared himself for political life. He came from a family where governmental influence would not have been open to him. But under the new system of government, he was able to advance as he was motivated by a tremendous sense of ambition and guided by a charismatic personality and daring vision. He used his charm and gifting to ascend to the place of military general. The Greek form of democracy was the only place in the world which allowed a larger number of people like him to climb the social ladder. And it was now under threat of being crushed by Persia.

The Distinctions of East and West

Democracy had been in Greece since 510 B.C, which has been introduced to Athens through the reforms of Cleisthenes. At this point, democracy is about 30 years old. This spirit of democracy allowed for public deliberation by the citizens regarding policies which effected their lives. Further, they were allowed to be critical of their leaders. Property was more widely and freely held. There could be no execution without a proper trial. They had the ability to freely write and speak their opinions. These freedoms in Persia were unknown. The absolute rule of millions were in the hands of a very few. The king and his small court of relatives, which were “the eyes and ears” of the king, thrived through substantial collections of taxes and the vast ownership of estates. The largest farms in Greece were a hundred acres, but in Persia the farms were in the thousands. Criticism or oppositions of the king and his administration would certainly be met with a cruel death. When a nobleman asked Xerxes that his son be exempted from war, he had the nobleman’s son cut in half and required the father to walk between the severed pieces of his body. It is at this historical juncture that we see the formative development of the conflicts of East (Persia) versus West (Greece).

The Persian fleet (in red) entered from the east (right) and confronted the Greek fleet (in blue) within the confines of the strait.

As the Battle of Salamis was to commence, it is nearly impossible to understand how impossible it was from the outmatched Greeks to win. The city of Athens has been abandoned and is going up in flames. There is no mainland to fight from in this area, so a land battle is an impossibility. The only option is a sea battle, yet its recently built fleet of 200 ships, of its 378, was unwilling to engage the enemy’s nearly 800 to 1,000 fighting vessels. (Herodotus and Aeschylus estimate that the Persian armada consisted of over a 1,000 ships with approximately 200,000 men.) A naval battle in the open sea would have led to a crushing defeat for the Greeks. So, Themistocles was convinced that the only hope of victory lay in the straights of Salamis where the superior numbers of the Persians would be less effective. Yet, he could not mobilize the military to confront the imperial giant because many of the commanders believed it to be a suicide mission.

To motivate the fearful leaders, Themistocles sent his slave, Sicinnus, to trick Xerxes into attacking the Greeks. Sicinnus delivered a message to Xerxes that said the Athenians were afraid and going to run away. The message also claimed that the Allied commanders were fighting among themselves. Xerxes believed the message and attacked the Greeks. With this attack, the fearful naval commanders were left with no choice but to defend themselves. Themistocles risky maneuver of trickery and deceit paid off. The Persians were defeated in the narrow straight of Salamis in the 12 hours of fighting. The more easily navigated triremes (Greek ships) were much more suited for this narrow warfare than the heavier ships of their enemies. The Persians were defeated with a loss of 200 ships and the Greeks with a loss of 40.

Legacy of Salamis

The Motivation of Freedom Is Advanced

The Greeks were able to fight and win because of freedom. Freedom created a greater morale and incentive to defeat the enemy. This was the understanding of Herodotus who commented:

As long as the Athenians were ruled by a despotic government, they had no greater success at war than any of their neighbors. Once the yoke was thrown off, they proved the finest fighters in the world.

After the victory at Salamis, Herodotus again tells us, that when the Persians attempted to mediate an agreement with the Athenians, they responded:

We know of ourselves that the power of the Persians is many times greater than ours. There is no need to taunt us with that. Nevertheless in our zeal for freedom we will defend ourselves to the best of our ability.

A year after the Salamis, Dirodorus tells us that the men in the Greek army were required to swear an oath beginning, “I shall fight to the death, and shall not count my life as more valuable than freedom.” Again, the same author records, that the Greeks dedicated a monument at the sanctuary of Dephi with the inscription, “The saviors of wide Greece set up this monument, having delivered their city-states from this loathsome slavery.”

As the Greeks were considering whether or not to continue in battle with the Persians, the leaders and citizens would engage in frenzied debate, disagreements and discussions. Herodotus characterized these constant deliberations as a “war of words,” and Diodorus described it as an “unrest of the masses.” This required the military’s generals and civic leaders to keep their thumb on the pulse of public opinion in relation to their decisions. In contrast to this, it was unthinkable for those in the Persian empire to express their opinions to Xerxes. This could very well lead to their death. The problem with this is that it shut out many good ideas, and blinded them to many mistakes and errors to avoid. In this major battle, freedom was confronted with a great test and came out the victor. The idea, meaning and reality of freedom was advanced.

The Power of Freedom is Advanced

Georg Hegel in his Philosophy of History reflects on the historic and momentous nature of the Battle of Salamis:

Oriental despotism—a world united under one lord and sovereign—on the one side, and separate states—insignificant in extent and resources, but animated by free individuality—on the other side, stood face to face. Never in history has the superiority of spiritual force over material bulk—and that of no contemptible amount—been made so gloriously manifest.”

It is of importance to remember that the idea of freedom was a couple of centuries old, and democracy itself was around three decades old. The practice of freedom was shared by only a few hundred thousand people in the backwaters of the Mediterranean. Had Salamis been lost by the Greeks it would have ended the eventual rise of Western civilization and its distinct institutions based on freedom altogether. Yet, now with Salamis won, the virus of freedom would be released and spread, and the strongest forces of oppression could not ultimately extinguish it.

The Meaning of Freedom Will Advance

It is not insignificant that when Christ came into the world, he was born at a time which had been greatly influenced by the Greeks.

Paul declares:

But when the fullness of time had come, God sent forth his Son, Christ came in the fullness of time.

Galatians 4:4

It was the Greek influence which allowed the apostles to have language and idea which could more clearly express the realities they experience with the revelation of Jesus and the expanding of the kingdom of God in the church. The New Testament was mainly written in Greek. Many ideas such as the logos (word), ecclesia (church/assembly), psuche (soul) express more of a Greek understanding. The early theology of the church would borrow heavily from Greek categories of thought.

God has ordered all of the nations of the world that they should come into the fullness of his purposes which are designed to advance the Story of Grace which is being written in the world.

²⁶From one man he made all the nations, that they should inhabit the whole earth; and he marked out their appointed times in history and the boundaries of their lands. ²⁷God did this so that they would seek him and perhaps reach out for him and find him, though he is not far from any one of us. ²⁸‘For in him we live and move and have our being.

Acts 17:26-28

Cleisthenes And Democracy From the Athens

In 508 B.C. the city state of Athens was in an uproar. The common people turned on their ruling elite because of the oppression and tyranny they had been experiencing. What sets this time apart from all that had gone before is that this was the very first uprising where the common people successfully overthrew their rulers. This action was unprecedented and would pave the way for the governmental democracy–“a government of the people and for the people.” But this was not accomplished through mob action. It would require a highly skilled and wise design to make this work. As this overthrow was taking place, the skill and leadership of Athenian nobleman, Cleisthenes, would be called upon. He would become a central figure in the development of democratic ideas and practices.

In this article, we will see how in God’s Story of Grace, divine providence continues to shape humanity toward increased freedom and dignity after the image of God in the Trinity (the balance of unity and diversity-the three in one). In another current of divine movement, God’s sovereignly works to introduce democracy from the West.

Why Democracy in Greece?

Geography

What were the conditions which allowed democracy to develop in Greece and Athens (which became the dominant city) in particular? One major factor was the geography of Greece. As a country it is comparable in size to Alabama in the U.S. or England in Europe. Yet, the landscape is riveted with approximately 300 mountains which separated the many city-states such as Athens, Sparta, Corinth, Thebes and Delphi. This made it very difficult for one king or monarch (like Cyrus of Persia) to rule the entire territory. This landscape naturally fostered a greater degree of local independence and fierce identity among each urban territory. This setting uniquely provided fertile ground for people to adopt and be governed by self-rule.

Olympic Games

Another important factor which allowed for democracy to germinate and grow in Greece was the Olympic games. Once every four years men gathered to compete in athletic skills. The competitions had been founded 200 years prior to the founding of democracy. What made these games stand a part was that they were open to all so that anyone could compete and win. These were also very popular with as many as 40,000 Greeks gathered to watch the sporting events. This environment created the idea of meritocracy where all could participate and be involved.

Economic Growth

Farming of olives prospered in Athens because of the amount of olive trees there. Economically olives provided oil, soap, and lubricants which became in increasing demand. The ancient Mediterranean had the greatest market place around the world providing an economy for Athens to flourish in the sale of olives and olive-based products. This caused Athens to economically prosper. In addition, Athens produced exceptional pottery. Though potters were the lowest of the low in society, pottery became of staple of the kitchen and transportation. The potters were very competitive wanting to outdo each other. This led to the capacity for extraordinary achievement among those considered to be in the lower class. It was for this reason that Athens was ripe to discover democracy among the city-states of Greece.

The Historical Cycle of Tyranny

In this background of a rising meritocracy and wealth of the Athenian population, the common people experienced increased discontent with their rulers. The common people were no longer content to be subjugated at the hands of their rulers. They demanded more of a voice in their civic affairs and were no longer content to be subjected to the ups and downs caused by the good and bad rulers of their city-states. Good rulers provided relief by way of tax reform, fair trials, debt relief during times of poor harvests, etc. Others provided hardship by increased taxation, harsher laws, land confiscation, abuse of rights, etc. People experienced the cycle of ups and downs that came from good and bad rulers, though mainly bad. During the year 508 B.C. the people of Athens were ready for the cycle to come to an end. They revolted, overthrowing their rulers. To guide them in constructing a government which gave agency to the people, they turned to Cleisthenes.

Cleisthenes and Democracy

Cleisthenes was born around 570 B.C. He was from his earliest days an aristocrat, an elite person separated from the common people. Aristocrats controlled everything and held power against everyone else. For example, the center of Athens was the Council of the Areopagus, which consisted of rulers called Archons. Nine archons were chosen each year by lot among the elite and wealthy classes. This ensured that the office of Archon perpetuated aristocratic rule. Sometimes good men would become an Archon and exercise positive reforms. One such ruler was a man named Solon who influenced the adoption of many laws which helped the poor: expanded citizenship, reforming weights and measures, forgiving debts of slaves, etc. The challenge which always occurred was that there were eventual problems of tyranny wiping out the reforms of the good rulers. So, whether the rulers were good or bad, the people were powerless in the cycles of ups and downs.

This brings us to 508 B.C. After the end of another tyranny, two factions competed for power to reshape the government of Athens. One was led by Isagoras, whom Aristotle calls a “friend of the tyrants.” The other was led by Cleisthenes who sought to befriend the lower classes. Isagoras won a victory by getting himself chosen as Archon in 508 B.C. In their rivalry, Isagoras called on the Spartan king Cleomenes to help him evict Cleisthenes from the city. When the Spartans occupied the city and tried to disband the government and expel all opposition, the Athenians rose up against them and those allied with Isagoras and drove them out. This was the very first time in history where the people stood against their leaders and overthrew them. With the overthrow of Isagoras and those allied with him, Cleisthenes was free to impose his reforms. This marks the beginning of classical Athenian democracy which fundamentally redefined how the people of Athens saw themselves in relation to each other and to the state.

For Cleisthenes the task was given to create a government which could escape from the pointless cycle of violence and tyranny. He must now give people a say in their future. He could not put in a tyrant or Aristocrats. He had people meet at the Acropolis. Rich and poor alike could address their fellow citizens. Government was not decided by the sword or class but by persuasion and voting. To accomplish this, it required several innovations:

Cleisthenes help to foster a common political identity. He managed to convince the Athenians to adopt their city-name into their own. So, where formerly an Athenian man would have identified himself as “Demochares, son of Demosthenes;” after Cleisthenes’ reforms he would have been more likely to identify himself as “Demochares from Athens.” Using identification with the city name de-emphasized any connection (or lack thereof) to the old aristocratic families and emphasized his place in the new political community.
Each city had a “demarch,” like a mayor, who was in charge of its most important functions: keeping track of new citizens. As young men came of age, the demarch kept track of all citizens from the city eligible to participate in the Assembly, and selecting citizens from the city each year to serve on the Council.
He arranged the central and most populous part of Greece into regions where representatives would meet as a council. This helped citizens to take an interest and be concerned beyond regional issues. This caused people to work together beyond their own families and tribes.

All of these reforms constituted a remarkable re-shaping of Athenian society along new lines. Old associations, by region or according to families, were broken. Citizenship and the ability to enjoy the rights of citizens were in the hands of immediate neighbors, but the governing of Athens was in the hands of the Athenian people as a whole, organized across boundaries of territory and clan. The new order was sealed as citizens adopted their city-names into their own names.

Through the work of Cleisthenes, God’s Story of Grace makes a remarkable step forward in bringing the ordered unity of the whole with the greater personal dignity of the many.