Tag: #Bible

A Tale of Two Graces: What If the Hinge Of History Had Swung Toward Pelagius?

In the fifth century, the Church stood at a great crossroads, where the teachings of Augustine of Hippo clashed with those of the British monk Pelagius. Augustine proclaimed that mankind, wounded by Adam’s sin, could find salvation only through God’s freely given and continually grace. Pelagius taught that man, born with perfect free will, might attain righteousness by his own efforts and discipline.

In our true history, Augustine’s voice prevailed. But imagine that at the Council of Carthage the bishops—swayed by noble lords who admired Pelagius’s call to rigorous virtue—chose otherwise. They declared Adam’s fall a mere ill example, not a corruption passed to all. Man remained capable, by will alone, of sinless perfection.

This is a mirror held to history: a thought upon how Christendom might have unfolded in the year of Our Lord 1285, eight centuries after the Great Ascendancy of Pelagian doctrine.

The Age of the Great Ascendancy

By the thirteenth century, the teachings of Pelagius had borne fruit across the lands once called Christendom. Monasteries and cathedral schools thundered with the creed of human perfectibility. Grace was no longer a gift unearned, but a crown for those who proved worthy by ascetic toil.

Towns and cities rose fair and orderly, their walls strong, their markets bustling yet sober. Great cathedrals pierced the heavens, built by the sweat of those striving for merit. Yet beneath the grandeur lay a solemn hush—no riotous feasts, no wandering minstrels singing of human folly, for such things smacked of weakness.

The Church, wedded closely to princes and lords, taught that every soul must pursue Perfection as the highest virtue. By one’s thirtieth year, a man or woman was expected to demonstrate mastery: moral purity, bodily discipline, and keen intellect. Those who succeeded were hailed as the Perfecti—knights, abbots, bishops, and merchants of flawless repute—who held the reins of power and honor.

Those who faltered bore the stain of Voluntary Imperfection. They were not pitied as frail children of Adam, but judged as willful sluggards who chose vice over virtue.

The Tale of Brother Caelen the Illuminator

In a quiet scriptorium of a great abbey near Paris, a monk named Caelen laboured over vellum. His quill traced not the usual saints in glory, but a hidden page: a weeping figure beneath a cold moon, tears staining a face twisted in sorrow—the sorrow of a soul that knew its own breaking.

Word reached the abbot. Caelen’s work was deemed a scandal: an admission of weakness, a denial of man’s power to stand unbowed. He was brought before the chapter, accused of spreading despair.

As his precious illuminations were scraped clean and his tools cast into the fire, Caelen stood unrepentant. “Man is not born for such cold perfection,” he whispered. He was sent to a remote house of penance, there to labor in silence until his will bent—or broke. Few returned from such places with spirit intact.

In that moment, one might recall the lost voice of Augustine: that all men share Adam’s wound, that mercy flows from Christ’s Cross, that grace lifts the fallen without merit.

The Bitter Fruits: An Unholy Order

Without the balm of original sin and unmerited grace, charity grew cold. The mutual love of the Holy Trinity, mirrored in human forgiveness, gave way to a sterner trinity: merit, perfection, and rigid order.

A Merit Without Mercy

Success was proof of superior soul. The poor, the sick, the slow of wit—these were seen not as brethren in frailty, but as those who refused the path of righteousness. Alms dwindled; hospitals served only the deserving.

The Burden of Endless Striving

Perfection being declared attainable, every lapse was counted deliberate sin. Souls lived in fear of small faults, confessors harsh, penances severe. Rest was suspect; joy, if unearned by toil, a snare.

A Sharper Division of Estates

The Perfecti rose high: lords spiritual and temporal, unassailable in their virtue. Below them, the mass of imperfect common folk toiled under heavier yoke, blamed for their station. No leper was embraced, no prodigal welcomed home.

A Grace-Filled Reflection

The doctrine of original sin, though sombre, binds us in shared humanity and opens the floodgates of mercy. It reminds us we are dust, yet beloved.

In our true world—shaped by grace’s victory—we are drawn into God’s Story of Grace: wounded, yet redeemed by Christ’s unearned love; called to extend the same to every fallen soul. This breeds hospitals, orders of mercy, songs of forgiveness, and communities where the weak find strength in the Savior’s wounds.

Thanks be to God that the hinge swung toward Augustine, and toward the Cross.

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Side Bar

The Council of Carthage (418): Condemning Pelagianism

In 418 AD, a major church council met in Carthage (North Africa) and took a strong stand against Pelagianism, officially declaring it a heresy. The bishops fully supported Augustine’s teachings on sin and grace. Here’s what the council affirmed and rejected, broken down clearly:

Key Affirmations (What the Council Upheld)

  • All humans inherit original sin from Adam Every person is born with the effects of Adam’s sin—it impacts the entire human race.
  • Divine grace is absolutely necessary for any truly good act Without God’s inner help (grace), no one can do anything genuinely good or pleasing to God.

Key Rejections (What the Council Condemned in Pelagianism)

  • People can obey God’s commands without inner transforming grace
    Rejected: Humans cannot perfectly follow God on their own; they need God’s grace to transform them from within.
  • Grace is given according to human merit
    Rejected: Grace is a free gift from God, not something earned by our efforts or goodness.
  • Adam’s fall harmed only himself, not the whole human race
    Rejected: Adam’s sin affected all his descendants, not just him personally.

This council was a pivotal moment in early Christian theology, solidly backing Augustine’s view of human dependence on God’s grace over the more optimistic Pelagian belief in human ability.

How Augustine’s Doctrine of Original Sin Built Stronger Societies

In the sun-bleached marble halls of ancient Rome’s senate, philosophers dreamed of a perfect republic—reason triumphing over passion, justice flowing naturally from enlightened laws. Yet time and again, greed subverted ideals, and pride corrupted leaders. A young North African bishop, Augustine of Hippo, saw through the illusion. Drawing from his own youthful malice—theft of pears not for need, but for thrill—he recognized a deeper flaw: a will bent inward, seeking self-glory over goodness. This was original sin.

While philosophers decried it as defeatist, Augustine argued honesty about human failure was the foundation for true progress. Societies built on pretense crumble; those acknowledging imperfection endure, receiving grace that comes from the self-giving love of the Trinity.

“Inside every person… a will turned inward, a ‘bent’ that sought its own glory rather than goodness itself.”

What Is Original Sin?

Original sin is like an inherited “bug” in human code—passed down from Adam and Eve’s disobedience, creating a universal tendency toward moral corruption. Humanity can’t fix this flaw alone; it needs divine grace.

Augustine saw the Fall as a cosmic shift: the Serpent’s temptation led Adam and Eve to choose self-rule over God’s. Eating the forbidden fruit (Genesis 3:6) severed harmony, introducing shame and hiding.

“Then the eyes of both of them were opened, and they knew that they were naked..." (Genesis 3:7)

This wasn’t just personal; consequences inherited through generations. From Romans 5:12:

“Therefore, just as sin entered the world through one man, and death through sin, and in this way death came to all people, because all sinned—”

Yet grace abounds: Romans 5:17 promises believers “reign in life” through Christ.

Social Benefits of Embracing Human Flaws

The Birth of Realistic Governance

Augustinian realism birthed systems assuming no one is angelic. Checks and balances prevent power concentration; independent courts pursue imperfect justice; civic engagement fosters responsibility. Humility tempers leadership, curbing tyranny.

This echoes in modern democracies: “If men were angels, no government would be necessary” (Federalist Papers). Reinhold Niebuhr’s Christian Realism added: “Man’s capacity for justice makes democracy possible; but man’s inclination to injustice makes democracy necessary.”

The Engine of Communal Charity

Pagan virtue saw generosity as elite duty. Augustine’s view: shared brokenness demands compassion. No one superior—all flawed, all needy. This sparked organized charity: hospitals, orphanages, enduring welfare networks rooted in empathy over judgment.

“Knowing that they, too, were flawed, citizens were moved to care for the poor and vulnerable.”

The Drive for Ongoing Progress

Utopias collapse in hubris. Augustinian struggle fuels incremental improvement—refining institutions, correcting injustices, pursuing science against decay. Perfection unattainable, progress becomes urgent necessity.

The Foundation of Universal Ethics

Ethics grounded in shared brokenness endure, applying to all. Everyone needs redemption and mercy, fostering compassion across divides.

Conclusion: Grace Amid Imperfection

Philosophers’ proud cities fell; Augustine’s humble truth built resilient ones. In accepting flaws, societies advance—not by human ambition, but grace breaking through pride. Thus, progress mirrors Trinitarian love: mutual, self-giving.

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Sidebar: A Translation That Shaped the West

Augustine’s strict view of original sin stemmed from a Latin mistranslation of Romans 5:12. Original Greek: eph’ hō pantes hēmarton — “because all have sinned.” (Death from individual sins in a corrupt world.) Latin Vulgate: in quo omnes peccaverunt — “in whom all have sinned.” (Guilt inherited directly from Adam.)

This led Western theology to “Original Sin” (inherited guilt + corruption), diverging from Eastern “Ancestral Sin” (corruption + mortality, no personal guilt).

FeatureAugustine’s InterpretationOriginal Greek Interpretation
InheritanceCorrupt nature + personal guilt of AdamCorrupt nature + mortality, no guilt
CausationAll die because born guiltyAll die because of own sins in corrupt world
NameOriginal SinAncestral Sin

The Latin Vulgate: How Jerome’s Bible Defined a Millennium of European Culture

depiction of Jerome

The year is 382, and Rome is in turmoil. The old empire is crumbling, and with it, the authority of its once-unassailable institutions. In the midst of this chaos, a brilliant and notoriously cantankerous scholar named Jerome was commissioned by Bishop Damasus to create a standardized Latin translation of the Bible. As Christianity spread through the western part of the Roman Empire: North Africa and Spain, then to Italy, Gaul (modern-day France), and Germany, there was a growing need for Latin versions of the Bible for those who did not understand the Septuagint (the Greek translation of the Old Testament) or the Greek letters of the New Testament. Initial Latin translations were made independently by various individuals and churches, without central authority. A patchwork of different regional versions was filled with inconsistencies and errors. The church needed a unified text, one that could be held as authoritative and authentic for the millions now impacted by the Christian message.

Map Demonstrating the Need for a Latin Translation of the Bible

It would be Jerome’s translation of the Bible that would advance the march of God’s Story of Grace in ways that can hardly be calculated. But its strongest contribution was to provide a common language, theology, and story to unify the western nations, many of whom were escaping barbarism and paganism to follow Christ. In this article, we will trace the journey to the translation of the Latin Vulgate and its impact on civilization. It took a fractured Europe and brought it together under the authority of God’s Word.

The Call to Translate

Jerome, a Roman-educated scholar, became seriously ill in Antioch in 375 AD. A powerful vision during his illness led him to abandon his worldly ambitions and embrace life as a desert monk to follow Jesus Christ. Following in the ways of the desert fathers, he entered into the life of a monk around 373 AD, about five years before he was commissioned by Bishop Damasus. Living in a desert cell in very austere conditions outside of Antioch in the Syrian desert, he disciplined himself to learn Hebrew and engage in scriptural study to know God better. Without realizing it, this would prepare him for his monumental translation work to which he would be called.1 As Damasus approached him, he left the area of Antioch and settled in Bethlehem, eventually immersing himself more deeply in the study of Hebrew and Aramaic to translate the Old Testament directly from its original sources—a radical act for his time.2 While his contemporaries favored translating the Old Testament from the Greek Septuagint because they believed it was inspired and authoritative, Jerome’s approach was rooted in his conviction that going back ad fontes (“to the sources”) was the only way to achieve a truly accurate and sound translation.

For more than two decades, Jerome labored in his Bethlehem monastery, dedicating himself to his work. By 405 A.D., he produced a polished and accessible translation in the “vulgar” (common language) Latin of the day, more commonly titled The Latin Vulgate. This translation would be widely comprehensible to millions. The Vulgate was more than just a new translation; it was a cultural and spiritual linchpin to hold Western civilization together for a millennium.

A Thousand Years of Influence

The Vulgate became a force for unity: With the collapse of the Western Roman Empire, the Church became a unifying force across a fractured continent. This unity would have been impossible without a common book. The Vulgate empowered the Church by providing a single, authoritative scripture that stabilized language, stories, doctrine, and worship practices. Kings and emperors, such as Charlemagne, relied on the Vulgate to unify their realms under a common Christian worldview. Even the Protestant Reformers, though knowing Greek and Hebrew, would commonly quote the Vulgate.

The Vulgate became formative for the development of theology: The Latin translation shaped the theological language of Western Europe for centuries. Jerome’s translation would give rise to many other translations including the first English translation of the Bible from John Wycliffe and his followers around 1382. The Gutenberg Bible, one of the first books ever printed, was a copy of the Vulgate, ensuring its continued dominance into the modern era. Even the King James translators consulted the Vulgate.3 In addition, the Latin terms Jerome used shifted the understanding, or at least the way they were read, of some of the key Greek terms in the New Testament. The Latin terms Jerome used in translating the Greek, in some cases, took on a more legal, governmental and military shift.4 This would have an enduring influence on theological development.

Conclusion

The work of Jerome was central for unifying the western countries of Europe around a common theme of God’s revelation in Christ through the Old and New Testaments. As Christianity spread throughout Europe, this Bible created a common theology, language and unifying story for which civilization could be brought and held together as the Roman Empire fell apart. Within the scriptures itself, we see this is the desire of God for the nations:

I will bless those who bless you,
    and whoever curses you I will curse;
and all peoples on earth
    will be blessed through you. (Genesis 12:3)

Now there were staying in Jerusalem God-fearing Jews from every nation under heaven. (Acts 2:5)

After this I looked, and there before me was a great multitude that no one could count, from every nation, tribe, people and language, standing before the throne and before the Lamb. (Revelation 7:9)

Though this reality will not be fully attained until the return of the Savior to the earth, through the Latin Vulgate, the world would become more trinitarian as the MANY different nations would become more unified as ONE around the Story of Grace.

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  1. Before being approached by Pope Damasus, Jerome was motivated to study Hebrew by a desire for penance and a need to overcome temptations during his life as a desert hermit. This was combined with a passion for precise biblical scholarship and a growing conviction that translations of the Old Testament should be based on the original Hebrew texts. 
  2. Translating the Old Testament from the Hebrew was a radical act at Jerome’s time because the church primarily used the Greek Septuagint translation, and many Christians considered it divinely inspired. Jerome’s decision to base his translation on the Hebrew Bible was controversial because it challenged the authority of the Septuagint, seemed to connect Christianity too closely to its Jewish roots, and was seen by some as an insult to the Greek-speaking East of the church.
  3. By the time of the Protestant Reformation (1517), the very success of the Vulgate had ironically made it inaccessible to the average person. Latin had evolved from the common spoken language of the Roman Empire into a scholarly and ecclesiastical language, no longer understood by the average person. 
  4. Below is a comparison chart of some of the key theological shifts in terms.
Original Greek Word Vulgate Latin TranslationMeaning Shift and Doctrinal Impact
metanoiapaenitentiaMetanoia means “a change of mind” or “repentance” in Greek. Jerome translated it as paenitentia, which comes from the Latin verb paenitere, meaning “to cause to regret or repent” or “to perform an act of penitence”. This translation led to a shift from an internal change of heart to the external, ritualistic actions of the sacrament of penance in Latin theology.
kecharitōmenēgratia plenaIn Luke 1:28, the angel’s greeting to Mary, kecharitōmenē, means “highly favored one” or “having been graced”. Jerome rendered it as gratia plena, “full of grace”. This change, though subtle, emphasized the Catholic doctrine that Mary was filled with grace in a unique, permanent sense, rather than simply being the recipient of a divine favor.
ethnosgentilisThe Greek word ethnos simply means “nation” or “people group” without any negative connotation. Jerome’s choice of gentilis for “Gentile” carried a more negative meaning, sometimes implying “foreigner” or “heathen” in Latin. This introduced a subtle racial and religious hierarchy that was not present in the original Greek.
logosverbumLogos is a rich Greek word encompassing ideas of “word,” “reason,” and “divine meaning”. The Vulgate’s translation as verbum captured the idea of “word” but lost some of the philosophical depth of the Greek, which had been influenced by Stoic and Platonic thought. This flattened the concept to a more literal, spoken word.
mysterionsacramentumThe Greek mysterion means “a secret rite” or “revealed secret”. By translating it as sacramentum, Jerome applied a term that had existing legal and military connotations in Latin, related to an oath of allegiance. The new word helped define the Christian sacraments as sacred oaths or rituals.

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Why Constantine Was Good For Christianity (Hosea 6:6)

depiction of Constantine

Two rivals, Constantine and Maxentius, met in an earth-shaking confrontation at the Milvian Bridge, north of Rome, over the Tiber River. Maxentius held Rome in his iron grip. As Constantine descended from the north, this brilliant general marched his smaller, battle-hardened army toward Rome. The day before the final battle, Constantine was filled with a familiar anxiety. At midday, his gaze drifted upward, away from the turmoil of his camp. There, he saw a cross of light above the sun itself, with the Greek words “Ἐν Τούτῳ Νίκα” (“In this sign, conquer”) emblazoned upon it. Later that night, another vision came to him in a dream. Christ appeared, bearing the same cross, and commanded Constantine to make this symbol his standard in battle. The symbol was the Chi-Rho, an elegant monogram formed from the first two Greek letters of “Christ.” The next day, he ordered his soldiers to paint the sacred monogram on their shields. Within hours, the two armies clashed fiercely on the plain north of Rome. Constantine’s cavalry, emblazoned with the Chi-Rho, charged with a ferocity that Maxentius’s larger army could not match. It was a decisive victory. After his victory at the Milvian Bridge, what Constantine did next—or did not do—would begin to echo through the ages. The rules of the triumph required Constantine to enter the Roman capital and offer the sacrifice of an animal to Jupiter; Constantine refused. This was because he attributed his win to the Christian God.

Constantine became the first Roman emperor to embrace and then promote Christianity. To some, this royal acceptance is what led to a corruption and decline of biblical Christianity for the centuries ahead. The worldly priorities of state power overtook the founding mission to make disciples given by Jesus (Matthew 28:19). so it is claimed. But what if Constantine had not become favorable to Christianity? Would the church have been stronger as a persecuted and minority faith? The answer is probably not. From the angle of God’s Story of Grace, Constantine was part of a kairos (“fullness of time moment”) that brought a pivotal change: he shifted the dominant religious theme of Rome from the pervasively practiced pagan blood sacrifice to a civic acknowledgment of the completed blood sacrifice of Christ. For all of Constantine’s alleged blessings and flaws, this exchange brought a pivotal shift in Western civilization.

In this article, the claim will be made that the effects of the atonement of Christ, which began to be embraced by the Roman Empire, liberated society from the fear of appeasing angry and volatile deities to providing increasing mercy to increase compassion in society. This would be a turning point for the widespread improvement of civilization reflecting the mutual and self-giving love of the Trinity.

Bloody Rome

The core of Rome’s existence was built on sacrifice. These frequently included animal offerings like rams and ox; but also human slaughter through gladiatorial games, strangling prisoners at the temple, burying prisoners of war alive, among others atrocities. Sacrifices were central to establishing favor with the deities in order to appease them for transgressions or demonstrate devotion to gain their favor. Another way this sacrificial devotion was expressed was the killing of Christians. This occurred at its greatest extent from 303 to 311, just before Constantine ascended to the throne in 312. Diocletian became emperor in 284. In 299, he participated in a sacrifice to seek the favor of the Roman Empire, while in the city of Antioch, that proved alarming. When the liver of a slaughtered animal was examined, the pagan priest said it showed unfavorable signs. For Diocletian this was very disturbing. The very peace of Rome was at stake. Theologian Peter Leithart describes what happens next:

The presiding diviner investigated and concluded that “profane persons” had interrupted the rites, and attention focused on Christians in Diocletian’s court who had made the sign of the cross to ward off demons during the proceedings. Diocletian was outraged and demanded that all members of his court offer sacrifice, a test designed to weed out Christians. Soldiers were required to sacrifice or leave the sacred Roman army. At least at the heart of the empire, in the court and in the army, sacrifices would continue without being polluted by Christians. At the heart of the empire, where it really mattered, gods and men would remain in communion.

Still the problem was not solved. Leithart continues:

Several years after the failed sacrifice, Diocletian was back in Antioch when a Christian deacon, Romanus, burst in on another imperial sacrifice loudly denouncing the worship of demons. Diocletian ordered that his tongue be cut out and sentenced him to prison, where he was executed, but the emperor knew something more needed to be done. Wintering in Nicomedia the following year, Diocletian consulted with his Caesar Galerius about the problem. “Arrogant and ambitious” and a “fanatical pagan,” Galerius urged Diocletian to issue a general order against the Christians.

The Chi Rho Symbol

Diocletian was charged with guarding the frontiers of the empire and maintaining the sacredness of Rome. It was his solemn duty to expel any pollution that might infect it and bring down the wrath of the gods. Christianity was spreading, and Christians were everywhere. From Diocletian’s point of view, Rome could only be saved by a massive sacrifice of Christian blood. What started out in 303 as an arrest and violence against Christian leaders turned into a bloodshed in the most widespread, long lasting and severe persecution which the church had ever faced under the hammer of Rome. The beginning of the end would finally occur at the battle at the Milvian Bridge in 312 and one year later the blood sacrifice of Christians ended in 313 when Constantine issued the Edict of Milan. This gave Christians legal status to practice their faith.

This was the beginning of a series of reforms which would baptize the Roman Empire in a Christian direction away from paganism. He prohibited his provincial governors from offering sacrifices at official functions, thus opening up civil offices to Christians. Eusebius, the ancient historian, claimed Constantine passed a law around 324 that “was intended to restrain the idolatrous abominations which in times past had been practiced in every city and country; and it provided that no one should erect images, or practice divination and other false and foolish arts, or offer sacrifices in any way.” In 325, he issued an edict against the gladiatorial games declaring that “bloody spectacles are not suitable for civil ease and domestic quiet.” Constantine himself fought imperial wars, but his victories were not celebrated as the honor-wars to the gods of previous emperors had done.

With Constantine, the Roman Empire became officially an empire without sacrifice or at least a bloody sacrifice. It still had acknowledgement of sacrifice, but it was the sacrifice provided once and for all by Jesus Christ. The implications had earth-quaking significance. Again, Peter Leithart explains:

Every city is sacrificial, but Constantine eliminated sacrifice in his own city and welcomed a different sacrificial city into Rome. For a fourth-century Roman, eliminating sacrifice from the city was as much as to say, “My city is no longer a city.” For a fourth-century Roman, acknowledging the church’s bloodless sacrifice as the sacrifice was as much as to say, “The church is the true city here.” When Constantine began to end sacrifice, he began to end Rome as he knew it, for he initiated the end of Rome’s sacrificial lifeblood and established that Rome’s life now depended on its adherence to another civic center, the church.

Because Rome couldn’t acknowledge the ultimate and final sacrifice for humanity, it was not free to exercise mercy. Above all God desires from his people “mercy not sacrifice.” (Hosea 6:6)

Pagan Sacrifice to the Sacrifice of Christ

The state became more compassionate. Because the sacrifice of Christ was accomplished “once and for all,” Rome no longer needed to be consumed with the brutal work of appeasing bloodthirsty entities. Rather, it could promote compassion and mercy as expressed through the message of the church. This would, in turn, bring the promotion of more just laws.

  • Crucifixion was abolished.
  • Funding for the poor, orphans, and widows was introduced.
  • The practice of infanticide through exposing unwanted babies was made illegal. Care for unwanted children was provided for from the public treasury.
  • More humane policies toward slaves was put in place.  
  • Branding on the faces of criminals was made illegal. 
  • Prison reform was inaugurated requiring that prisoners be given daylight and fresh air instead of being kept in total darkness. 
  • Gladiator games were banned. 
  • Women were given more rights in regard to their children.
  • A day of rest was put in place , thereby reordering the life of society to make space for Christian worship.1

The mission of the church expanded. The Constantinian revolution created space for Christianity to shape the new society that was being constructed away from paganism. The church put forward a new idea of a separate community within society. No longer did the state control the ultimate meaning of life. The church was a gathered community within the state that brought in God’s Story of Grace in Jesus Christ. The result was a great flowering of Christian expression in art, architecture, law, theology, philosophy, and spiritual literature. None of this was imposed by the state but came as a natural outgrowth of the dynamic movement of Christianity. The number of disciples would mount across the empire. Historian Robert Louis Wilken describes the church’s growth:

The transformation that took place within the empire would be replicated again and again as Christianity spread beyond Rome’s boundaries into northern Europe, among the Franks and the Germans, the British and the Irish, the Scandinavians and the Poles, the Lithuanians and the Bulgars, the Ukrainians and the Russians, into Asia among the Armenians and Georgians, and into Africa among the Nubians and Ethiopians. For all these peoples conversion to Christianity meant a change of public practice in law, in architecture, in calendar, in marriage customs, in political institutions, in social mores, in burial practices, and much more.

Statistically, it would be at the time of Constantine that Christianity would experience an exponential growth.2

Conclusion

In Constantine, God’s Story of Grace would advance primarily with the cross triumphing over paganism, and compassion beginning to overtake the Roman jaws of power. The Christian ethic of human value would advance as a widespread value in Western culture. It would be from this place that the boundaries of Christian mission and influence would be expanded. For the first time, the organic movement of the church would intersect with the force of Roman power, and a new phase of the image of the Trinity would be born into the world. All the parts of Rome (the many) would become more unified as a larger body (the one) under the sign of the cross.3

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  1. Though Constantine would have a revolutionary influence, he did not usher in a “golden age” of Christianity. Over the next decades after Constantine, Christianity would face a battle against Arianism to affirm the deity of Christ as affirmed in the Council of Nicaea. Often those like Athanasius, who affirmed the Nicaean Creed were severely persecuted.
  2. Rodney Stark has provided these stats on the growth of Christianity in the first four centuries: 7,500 Christians by the end of the first century (0.02% of sixty million people); 40,000 Christians by 150 AD (0.07%); 200,000 by 200 AD (0.35%); 2 million by 250 AD (2%)6 million by 300 AD (10%); 34 million by 350 AD (57%)
  3. Under Constantine, the church held its first ecumenical council, which affirmed the doctrine of the deity of Christ at the Nicaean Council in 325.

Grace Unleashed: How Jesus Changed Everything for Women

“In the last days, God says, I will pour out my Spirit on all people. Your sons and daughters will prophesy… Even on my servants, both men and women, I will pour out my Spirit in those days, and they will prophesy.”

Acts 2:17-18

Imagine the chaos and wonder: a mighty wind roaring through Jerusalem, flames dancing on heads, and Peter boldly declaring God’s promise from the prophet Joel. This moment wasn’t just a spectacle—it marked the launch of God’s great Story of Grace, a healing force for a fractured world. At its core? The radical elevation of women, mirroring the perfect, mutual love of the Trinity.

Image of the Father, Son and Holy Spirit

Without Jesus’ movement, history tells us the world would have stayed far darker for women. Join this timeless journey: meet courageous women, hear Jesus’ words, and witness grace transforming lives across centuries.

A World in Shadows

Life for Women Before Jesus

In the first century, women often lived on society’s edges—valued for utility, not inherent worth.

  • Roman Society: Wives fell under total male control, treated almost as property. Public voices? Rare.
  • Greek Culture: “We have courtesans for pleasure, concubines for daily cohabitation, and wives for bearing legitimate children…” — Demosthenes
  • Jewish Context: Many men prayed, “Thank God I’m not a Gentile, slave, or woman.”

“This was the fractured world Jesus stepped into—like a light piercing deep darkness.”

Then vs. Now

A stark contrast: Ancient restrictions gave way to early Christian equality in commemoration and roles—unique in antiquity.

Light Breaks Through

Jesus Shatters Barriers with Grace

“Jesus came not primarily as a male, but as a person. He treated women as human beings.” — Nancy Hardesty & Leah Scanzoni

He Talked to Them—Really Talked

One scorching afternoon at Jacob’s well, Jesus engaged a Samaritan outcast. His disciples? Stunned. “They were surprised to find him talking with a woman” (John 4:27). He offered living water, gently unveiled her story, and revealed Himself as Messiah. She became the Gospel’s first evangelist.

He shared resurrection truths with Martha and defended Mary’s disciple-like learning: “Mary has chosen what is better…” (Luke 10:42).

He Welcomed Them as Followers

women at the empty tomb

Women traveled with Jesus, funding His ministry: Mary Magdalene, Joanna, Susanna, and many others (Luke 8:1-3).

On Resurrection morning, women discovered the empty tomb first. Jesus tasked Mary Magdalene: “Go… tell my brothers” (John 20:17-18). Her proclamation? “I have seen the Lord!”

He Honored Their Full Dignity

Jesus named a healed woman “daughter of Abraham” (Luke 13:16)—spiritual equality!

“There is neither… male and female, for you are all one in Christ Jesus.”

Galatians 3:28

Women Rising

Leadership in the Early Church

The revolution continued:

  • Phoebe — Deacon and benefactor (Romans 16:1)
  • Junia — Outstanding among apostles (Romans 16:7)
  • Priscilla — Taught theology boldly (Acts 18:26)

Women prophesied, hosted churches, served as deaconesses. Graves reveal daughters mourned equally to sons—revolutionary!

Ripples Across History

Grace Advances Dignity

Christianity sparked waves of freedom:

  • Ended girl infanticide
  • Banned foot-binding via missionaries
  • Pioneered girls’ education and universities
  • Fueled suffrage and human rights

Milestones Timeline

From early deaconesses to modern reforms—grace unfolding step by step.

Today, Christian women lead in missions, education, justice. Faith-based efforts often empower most deeply where need is greatest.

Your Place in the Story

Jesus heals fractures through Trinitarian love: giving, uniting, dignifying all. In our unequal world, this grace calls us to champion community over dominance.

The Pentecost promise endures: daughters prophesy, grace transforms, the world brightens.

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Article Arc

  • Before Christ, women were shadows. After Him, they became light-bearers.
  • The first evangelist wasn’t Peter or Paul—it was a Samaritan woman.
  • In Christ, equality wasn’t theory—it was reality.
  • Every step of history echoes Pentecost: daughters still prophesy and grace still transforms.
  • The Spirit’s fire burns for all—men and women, side by side, carrying hope to the world.

The Mercy Revolution: How Early Christian Values Became Universal

Imagine hiding in fear one moment, then bursting with boldness the next. That’s what happened in a Jerusalem upper room around AD 33.

The Holy Spirit rushed in like wind and fire, transforming terrified followers into a tight-knit family overflowing with grace.

“All the believers were one in heart and mind… God’s grace was so powerfully at work in them all that there were no needy persons among them.”

Acts 4:32–34

This wasn’t just talk—it was action: selling property, sharing everything, ensuring no one went without.

“The spark from Pentecost became a blaze that lit the world.”

Love in Action: Agape Feasts and Everyday Mercy

Weekly “love feasts” broke down barriers. Slaves dined with masters; outcasts found welcome. These meals around the Lord’s Supper nourished bodies and built unbreakable community—mirroring the Trinity’s self-giving love.

Jesus set the example, healing the sick and teaching:

“Whatever you did for one of the least of these… you did for me.”

Matthew 25:40

A World in Shadows

Christians Saving An Abandoned Child

Roman cities like Rome (1 million souls) were packed denser than modern slums. Tall, shaky insulae apartments loomed, prone to fire and collapse. Waste filled streets; disease spread unchecked.

Pagan society? Mercy was weakness. Babies—especially girls or disabled—were “exposed” on rubbish heaps to die.

Historian Tom Holland: “Wailing at the sides of roads… babies abandoned by their parents were a common sight.”

Comparison Chart: Attitudes Toward the Vulnerable

AspectPagan Roman WorldEarly Christian Response
The Poor & SickIgnored or abandonedCared for actively, even strangers
Unwanted ChildrenExposed to dieRescued; every life sacred
CompassionSeen as weaknessCore virtue from God’s love

Jesus’ parable of the Good Samaritan shattered ethnic and social walls.

The Good Samaritan

Followers lived it out: Deacons organized aid; collections helped distant churches. James and John warned—faith without deeds is dead.

From Spark to Blaze: Heroes in the Plague

AD 250–270: The Cyprian Plague ravaged the empire, killing thousands daily. Pagans fled, leaving the dying.

Christians stayed, nursing everyone—believer or not.

Bishop Cyprian: Care for the sick, even enemies.

This simple mercy—water, food, burial—saved lives and won converts.

Christians Caring for the Sick

By AD 369, St. Basil built the Basiliad—a massive complex for the poor, sick, and lepers. The world’s first true hospital.

Timeline of Grace

AD 33 — Pentecost sparks community sharing
AD 40s–50s — Agape feasts & deacon ministries rise
AD 250–270 — Plague care extended to all
AD 369 — Basiliad founded
Today — Hospitals and charities worldwide carry the torch

The Lasting Light: Why It Matters Today

Even critic Emperor Julian admitted: Christians “support not only their own poor but ours as well.”

This revolution birthed our modern sense of human dignity—ending infanticide, founding orphanages, inspiring healthcare for all.

In a still-broken world, the Trinity’s love calls us to the same: Build communities of grace, lift the marginalized, heal the hurting.

“Will you carry the flame?”

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Article Arc

  • From a locked room of fear to a world ablaze — Pentecost changed everything.
  • Sharing meals, breaking barriers — mercy took a seat at every table.
  • In a world that discarded the weak, Christians lifted them up.
  • From street care to the first hospital — compassion built its own infrastructure.
  • What began as a spark of grace became history’s brightest flame.

Fire From the Throne, Light In the World (Excursus on Daniel 7)

This is a second article providing an excursus (a more focused discussion) on the purpose and scope of the Story of Grace project. As stated in the first article on What the Story Of Grace Is All About (Excursus on Colossians 1:15-17):

It is the understanding of how God’s decisive acts of creation and redemption are unfolding through the entire scope of history reclaiming and transforming everything to participate in the likeness of the Trinity.

In this referenced article above, three guiding truths are elaborated from Colossians 1:15-17:

  1. In God’s Story Jesus is Creator and Redeemer of all creation.
  2. In God’s Story everything is being renewed into the likeness of the Trinity.
  3. In God’s Story redemption and renewal is universal in scope.

In this second excursus, we will examine these very same three claims through another scriptural lens: Daniel 7. Daniel 7 is notable in that it is either quoted or alluded to a total of 58 times in the New Testament.1 These fours beasts (which we will soon see) represent four empires which cover about 1,000 years of history.2  Why are each of these nations called beasts? It possibly highlights their predatory and beast like behavior apart from the power of God. Because the taming power within these empires which limits their destructive deadliness is the restraining and overruling grace of God as seen in vs.9-10 and vs.13-14. Through this passage, we will see another picture of God’s Story of Grace unfolding with a central revelation God gives in the midst of history’s sweep.

Premise # 1: In God’s Story Jesus is Creator and Redeemer of all creation.

Daniel, writing in his mid 60’s (553 B.C.), begins the record of his dream:

In the first year of Belshazzar king of Babylon, Daniel had a dream, and visions passed through his mind as he was lying in bed. He wrote down the substance of his dream. (Daniel 7:1)

It is significant that Daniel receives this dream at this time because Belshazzar would be the last king of Babylon before Cyrus of Persia would overtake them. Daniel was recording this revelation at the beginning of Belshazzar’s reign.

Daniel said: “In my vision at night I looked, and there before me were the four winds of heaven churning up the great sea.” (Daniel 7:2)

The four winds of heaven churning up the great sea represents the chaos of the world in which the four beasts (vs.3-8) are about to emerge. This is the beast like and predatory world which has fallen away from the order of God’s creative purposes. The world is not naturally good. As Thomas Hobbes wrote in Leviathan about man in a state of nature is “solitary, poor, nasty, brutish, and short.” Daniel’s dream provides a picture of this brutish nature apart from the grace of God.

He goes on the describe these four beasts which covers a period of around 1,000 years.

3 Four great beasts, each different from the others, came up out of the sea.4 “The first was like a lion, and it had the wings of an eagle. I watched until its wings were torn off and it was lifted from the ground so that it stood on two feet like a human being, and the mind of a human was given to it.5 “And there before me was a second beast, which looked like a bear. It was raised up on one of its sides, and it had three ribs in its mouth between its teeth. It was told, ‘Get up and eat your fill of flesh!’6 “After that, I looked, and there before me was another beast, one that looked like a leopard. And on its back it had four wings like those of a bird. This beast had four heads, and it was given authority to rule. 7 “After that, in my vision at night I looked, and there before me was a fourth beast—terrifying and frightening and very powerful. It had large iron teeth; it crushed and devoured its victims and trampled underfoot whatever was left. It was different from all the former beasts, and it had ten horns. (Daniel 7:3-7)

These four beast can be outlined as follows:

Lion…Babylon. (v.4)  605 – 539 BC

Bear…Persia.  (v.5) 539 – 333 BC

Leopard…Greece. (v.6) 333 – 146 BC

Ten Horn Beast…Rome. (v.7) 146 BC – 476 AD

Verse 8 goes on to elaborate in regard to the fourth beast (Rome)

“While I was thinking about the horns, there before me was another horn, a little one, which came up among them; and three of the first horns were uprooted before it. This horn had eyes like the eyes of a human being and a mouth that spoke boastfully. (Daniel 7:8)

Some see this verse as catapulting Daniel way into the future with a picture of the anti-Christ in a revived Roman Empire before Christ returns to earth. (see Revelation 13:1-4) Others see this as representing a historical figure coming out of the Roman Empire. Whatever the interpretation may be, what stands out in the sharpest contrast is what is revealed next in vs.9-10:

9 As I looked,

thrones were set in place,
    and the Ancient of Days took his seat.
His clothing was as white as snow;
    the hair of his head was white like wool.
His throne was flaming with fire,
    and its wheels were all ablaze.
10 A river of fire was flowing,
    coming out from before him.
Thousands upon thousands attended him;
    ten thousand times ten thousand stood before him.
The court was seated,
    and the books were opened. (Daniel 7:9-10)

This is a revelation of God calmly coming to take his place as ruler and judge. As Ancient of Days:

  • Nothing gets by him.
  • Nothing surprises him.
  • He never learns anything.
  • He never misunderstands anything.
  • He is never caught off guard.
  • There’s never been a time he wasn’t fully in charge.

He is in no way shaken by these beasts.

What unfolds over the next five verses is a revelation of the Trinity. Daniel says that there were thrones (plural) set in place. There is more than one ruler and judge, one who sits along side the Ancient of Days. From the context of this verse the only other ruler and judge can be the Son of Man (Jesus the Messiah) as seen in vs.13-14, which we will view shortly.

The Father

The title Ancient of Days is a highly revered reference to God the Father.

The Holy Spirit

9His throne was flaming with fire,
    and its wheels were all ablaze.
10 A river of fire was flowing,
    coming out from before him.

What is described with the picture of the throne with wheels ablaze is the moving omnipresence (everywhere presence) of God which extends his reach through a flowing river of fire that is coming out from before him. This fire flowing from the throne of God appears to be a symbolic picture of the Holy Spirit present on the earth carrying out the rule of the Father. The scriptures often equate the Holy Spirit with the presence of fire.3 It is this fire (the Holy Spirit) which will be poured out upon the earth at Pentecost in an intensified way.

The Son

In the midst of all the beastly activity, there is a rule which is taking place which overrides all other activity on the earth. Daniel’s vision highlights the ascension and the return of Jesus Christ.

13 “In my vision at night I looked, and there before me was one like a son of man, coming with the clouds of heaven. He approached the Ancient of Days and was led into his presence. 14 He was given authority, glory and sovereign power; all nations and peoples of every language worshiped him. His dominion is an everlasting dominion that will not pass away, and his kingdom is one that will never be destroyed. (Daniel 7:13-14)

The designation Son of Man is, of course, a revelation of Jesus Christ. It is the most common title that Jesus uses for himself in the gospels–a total of 88 times. He references himself more often as the Son of Man that he does the Son of God. Having its origins in the verses above, this is the highest and most exalted visualization of the messiah in the Old Testament. There are three distinctives which stand out about the Son of Man in the verses above:

  1. He is given authority, glory and sovereign power which is a divine status which cannot be given to any created being.
  2. All nations and peoples of every language worshiped him which is another divine status which cannot be given to any created being.
  3. He will have an everlasting dominion that will not pass away, and his kingdom is one that will never be destroyed. This is another divine status which cannot be given to a human being.

When does this reign occur? It appears to occur after the victorious resurrection from death and is pronounced by Jesus in the preface to the Great Commission:

All authority in heaven and on earth has been given to me. (Matthew 28:18)

In Daniel 7:13-14 appears to be the ascension where this reign is carried out through the mission of the church. This authority was given because Jesus accomplished the finished work of redemption on the cross for all that he created. Then he went on to express how and for what reason his authority will be exercised as seen in the next premise.

Premise # 2: In God’s Story everything is being renewed into the likeness of the Trinity.

As Jesus gives the Great Commission as the Creator and Redeemer of everything, all of the world eventually is to be immersed in the trinitarian reality of God. On the way to that eventuality, the followers of Jesus are to baptize (immerse) those who are a part of the church into the name (reality) of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit.

19 Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father and of the Son and of the Holy Spirit, 20 and teaching them to obey everything I have commanded you. And surely I am with you always, to the very end of the age. (Matthew 28:19-20)

Those baptized are the firstfruits of the Spirit (Rom. 8:23), being immersed into the larger reality of God’s work of fashioning all of creation into his image into the mutual and life-giving unity of the trinity causing increased shalom and flourishing in the world.

Premise # 3: In God’s Story redemption and renewal is universal in scope.

So, as the Story of Grace continues, it will now address how the gospel advances the image of the mutual and self-giving unity of the trinity throughout the world. This can be seen in three theological truths:

Truth # 1: The grace of God is working within history. There is obviously in the text of Daniel 7 a sharp contrast between the picture of the beasts (vs.3-8) and the Ancient of Days (vs.9-10) and the Son of Man (vs.13-14). This contrast is meant to show that without the grace of God4 through the Holy Spirit flowing within the world, the only experience we would have would be a predatory and warlike existence. Because of the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit the beasts of the four kingdoms are restrained in their evil and the work and reign of God is still unfolding in history.

Truth # 2: The grace of God working within history laid the foundations for civilization.

  • Beast # 1: From Babylon (v.4) the world received a foundational understanding of law in the Code of Hammurabi, and the practice of the seven day week, which came through their magi who were star gazers.
  • Beast # 2: Through Persia (v.5) was born the experience of universal human rights through Cyrus.
  • Beast # 3: From Greece (v.6) the world is gifted with the idea and practice of democracy, the art of theater, the theological conception of logos, and the discipline of philosophy. Through the work of Aristotle came the foundational understandings of logic, biology, and ethics. From Aristotle’s student Alexander the Great comes the most important intellectual event ever, the Library of Alexandria. This established that the pursuit of wisdom and knowledge is to be a universal aspiration.
  • Beast # 4: Out of Rome (v.7) was the development of a greater application of law with the Twelve Tables which brought greater ordered equality of rights between the elite rules (patricians) and the common workers (plebeians). This desire for order equality based in law would provide for us the ideas of a senate, a republic, checks and balances, e pluribus unum (out of the many, one).

Truth # 3: After the death and resurrection of Jesus, the scope of God’s Story of Grace transforming the world intensifies. The changing of the world into the mutual and self-giving presence of the Trinity will happen at a greater scale because of the outpouring of the Holy Spirit and the missional movement of the church. The fire that we see flowing from the throne of the Ancient of Days is poured out onto the earth in a greatly intensified way through the Holy Spirit at Pentecost. (Acts 2:1-4)

It is now to the post-ascension outpouring of the Holy Spirit that the Story of Grace will proceed.

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  1. This is perhaps the most referenced and alluded to Old Testament chapter in the New Testament thus showing its centrality to understanding the revelation of God.
  2. How long one sees this period depends on the length that they see the Roman Empire being extended.
  3. John answered them all, “I indeed baptize you with water, but he comes who is mightier than I, the strap of whose sandals I am not worthy to loosen. He will baptize you in the Holy Spirit and fire. (Luke 3:16) When the day of Pentecost arrived, they were all together in one place. And suddenly there came from heaven a sound like a mighty rushing wind, and it filled the entire house where they were sitting. And divided tongues as of fire appeared to them and rested on each one of them. And they were all filled with the Holy Spirit and began to speak in other tongues as the Spirit gave them utterance. (Acts 2:1–4) Out of the throne proceed lightnings, sounds, and thunders. There were seven lamps of fire burning before his throne, which are the seven Spirits of God. (Revelation 4:5) The Holy Spirit is as personal as the Father and the Son, yet within the Trinity he is most pleased to be described in less personal and more analogous ways like fire.
  4. This grace can be referred to in the category common grace. Common grace encompasses God’s provision of daily blessings, the restraint of sin’s effects, and the delay of judgment, all experienced by both believers and non-believers. To draw to clear a distinction between common grace and saving grace (redemption and restoration offered to those who believe in Jesus Christ) is problematic because they are closely linked. Common grace can lead to saving grace, as Paul states, Or do you show contempt for the riches of his kindness, forbearance and patience, not realizing that God’s kindness is intended to lead you to repentance? (Romans 2:4)

What the Story of Grace Is All About: An Excursus on Colossians 1:15–20

The Story of Grace, as a theological project, highlights how God reveals Himself through creation and redemption. The Triune God—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—unfolds a tale of love, inviting all things into communion with Him. This story is more than just history; it shows a purpose, supporting Jonathan Edwards’s idea that “the great end of all God’s works is the glory of God,” seen in the ongoing redemption of creation. Within this narrative, divine grace and human actions connect, emphasizing the need for faith and obedience in accepting God’s call. The various stories that emerge showcase different aspects of grace, linking to our own challenges and victories. By understanding grace, we see not only the larger story of redemption but also our roles in this divine journey, deepening our understanding of our relationships with God and one another.

Started in June 2023, this project explores early religion and the idea of divine economy (oikonomia) as explained by Irenaeus of Lyons, who viewed Christ’s redemptive work as a “recapitulation” (anakephalaiosis) of all creation, reversing Adam’s fall and restoring harmony in the Trinitarian life. Central to this is the early Christian hymn from Colossians 1:15–20, which Paul uses to declare Christ’s cosmic authority, interweaving protology (origins), soteriology (salvation), and eschatology (ultimate ends) into a unified tapestry of grace that shows the unity and diversity of God.

This hymn, resonant with the Wisdom traditions of Proverbs 8 and the Logos theology of John 1, declares:

15 The Son is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation. 16 For in him all things were created: things in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or powers or rulers or authorities; all things have been created through him and for him. 17 He is before all things, and in him all things hold together. 18 And he is the head of the body, the church; he is the beginning and the firstborn from among the dead, so that in everything he might have the supremacy. 19 For God was pleased to have all his fullness dwell in him, 20 and through him to reconcile to himself all things, whether things on earth or things in heaven, by making peace through his blood, shed on the cross. (Colossians 1:15-20)

In this passage, the apostle presents a Trinitarian story where the Son, as the image of the Father, conveys the Father’s creative command and the Spirit’s life-giving presence, promoting shalom—a complete flourishing that looks forward to the new creation mentioned in Isaiah 65:17–25 and Revelation 21:1–5. This story highlights the deep connection between the three divine persons: they are united without losing their individuality, as Tertullian explained in Against Praxeas, describing the Trinity as “three persons, one substance,” distinct in their roles but unified in essence.

The implications for eschatology are significant: the Story of Grace ends with the idea that “God may be all in all” (1 Corinthians 15:28), a universal healing that mends the brokenness of sin and turns conflict into a harmonious unity that reflects the nature of the Trinity.

Three Truths of Story of Grace

Truth # 1: In God’s Story Jesus is Creator and Redeemer of all creation.

The Son is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation…And he is the head of the body, the church; he is the beginning and the firstborn from among the dead, so that in everything he might have the supremacy. (Colossians 1:15, 18)

Transcendence (God Above All) and Immanence (God Within All)

The term prōtotokos (firstborn) when referring to Christ highlights His unique position, not just in time but in essence. According to Karl Barth in Church Dogmatics (IV/1), Jesus is both the Creator and Redeemer, connecting the eternal with the present world.

Being the firstborn signifies not only Christ’s authority over all creation, similar to the “thrones or dominions” noted in Colossians 1:16, but also emphasizes His intimate relationship with all creation, filling it with divine life. This idea connects to Boethius’s view of eternity as “the simultaneous and complete possession of infinite life” in The Consolation of Philosophy, where eternity meets time through Christ’s life, making the invisible God (theos aoratos) truly present in our world. This dual nature of Christ also points to future renewal, as Athanasius mentions in On the Incarnation, “He became what we are that He might make us what He is,” meaning that humanity and creation are invited to share in God’s glory.

Romans 8:19–21 describes creation’s struggle as it waits for freedom from decay, leading to the “freedom of the glory of the children of God,” with Christ referred to as the “firstborn among many brothers and sisters” (Romans 8:29). Therefore, the resurrection starts a new age, where, as Jürgen Moltmann writes in The Coming of God, Christ brings about a “new creation” that redeems both people’s souls and the material world, suggesting a renewed environment filled with grace where decay gives way to lasting life.

Truth # 2: In God’s Story everything is being renewed into the likeness of the Trinity.

For in him all things were created: things in heaven and on earth, visible and invisible, whether thrones or powers or rulers or authorities; all things have been created through him and for him. (Colossians 1:16)

Reciprocating Love From the Trinity

The prepositions “through” (dia) and “for” (eis) Christ describe a relationship based on the mutual love within the Trinity, where creation comes from the Father’s generous love for the Son, and is brought to life by the Spirit. As Charles Spurgeon said, “just as they are united in creation, they are united in salvation, working together as one God for our salvation.”

This reflects the harmonious unity and diversity of the Godhead, which Herman Bavinck refers to as the “archetype of man” and all creation, where “unity and diversity coexist without harming each other.“

Philosophically, this relates to Hegel’s concept of thesis-antithesis-synthesis, but reinterpreted in Christian terms as a peaceful harmony, where diversity enhances unity without conflict. Biblically, Ephesians 1:9–10 supports this idea: God “made known to us the mystery of his will… to unite all things in him, things in heaven and things on earth,” showing a Trinitarian coming together that opposes chaos with abundant life, as seen in Genesis 1’s repeated mentions of “all” and “every,” symbolizing God’s overflowing creativity (with 87 million species estimated today). In the future, this suggests a fulfilled order in Revelation 22:1–5, where the river of life flows from God’s throne and the Lamb, nurturing a restored creation in lasting communion, free from the curse (Genesis 3:17–19).

Truth # 3: In God’s Story redemption and renewal is universal in scope.

For God was pleased to have all his fullness dwell in him, and through him to reconcile to himself all things, whether things on earth or things in heaven, by making peace through his blood, shed on the cross. (Colossians 1:19-20)

The plērōma (fullness) that lives in Christ represents the complete nature of God (Colossians 2:9). It brings about a cosmic apokatallassō (reconciliation), as Irenaeus’s theory suggests: Christ “summed up all things in Himself,” restoring the broken universe.

This wide-reaching scope—covering “all things” (ta panta)—challenges ideas that focus only on humans for salvation, extending even to the suffering creation (Romans 8:22). John Piper emphasizes that “Jesus isn’t just the means. He is the great end,” the purpose of history.

Theologically, this connects with Augustine’s City of God, where grace changes selfishness into love for others, reflecting the Trinity’s unity (John 17:21–23). Looking to the future, Hebrews 1:2–3 describes Christ as heir and supporter, whose cleansing work points to the “world to come” (Hebrews 2:5), a renewed universe where “the wolf shall dwell with the lamb” (Isaiah 11:6), suggesting the end of harmful structures and the establishment of peace.

Implications of the Scope of God’s Story of Grace

First, God’s Story unfolds through salvation history. This means that God reveals Himself slowly over time, as Edwards suggests, allowing people to understand gradually without being overwhelmed. This helps them grow spiritually towards the ultimate vision. The story of Israel—from slavery in Egypt to freedom (Exodus 19–20), judges to kings (1 Samuel 8–2 Samuel 7), and exile to recovery (Ezra 1–6)—shows God’s qualities: grace, greatness, and loyalty. It all leads to Christ, who says, “Whoever has seen me has seen the Father” (John 14:9). This history points to the end times, where people can see God’s ultimate glory (1 John 3:2).

Secondly, God’s Story unfolds through the nations. Acts 17:26–27 tells us that God sets times and places “that they should seek God,” guiding cultural strengths towards a reflection of God’s nature. For example, Athenian democracy, developed from its unique conditions, sports, and theater, encourages unity in diversity, which is further enhanced by the inclusive values of Christianity (Galatians 3:28). This idea comes together in Revelation 7:9–10, portraying a diverse group worshiping Jesus, fulfilling God’s promise to Abraham (Genesis 12:3) in a beautiful diversity.

Third, God’s Story touches all cultural expressions. Language, stories, ideas, social connections, and artifacts can all be used for divine purposes. For instance, the Phoenician alphabet and papyrus allowed the creation of the Hebrew Scriptures, with “Bible” coming from Byblos, showing God’s guiding hand in history. In the end, this hints at a renewed way of understanding in the new Jerusalem, where “the leaves of the tree are for the healing of the nations” (Revelation 22:2), turning cultural creations into tools for eternal connection.

Conclusion

This project, developed over thirty years and starting in 2023, aims to understand God’s redemptive influence, bringing joy to life within the Trinitarian story. Just as Edwards’s unfinished work inspires modern extensions like Gerald McDermott’s A New History of Redemption, the Spirit—seen in Colossians 1:8–9—enables participation in divine glory (John 17:5). In this Story of Grace, the unity and diversity of creation reflect the Trinity, moving toward a future where all is made new, continuously echoing the Father’s love through the Son in the Spirit.

The Bible Behind Your Bible (The Codex Sinaiticus)

Image of a Codex

The most important development to emerge as a result of the Alexandrian Library is the creation of the codex of the New Testament. A codex is the earliest form of a book. The earliest codices (plural for codex) we have come from Alexandria due to the importance the city placed upon books (collections of manuscripts). In fact, the oldest copy of the entire New Testament is the Codex Sinaiticus, which came from the Sinai of Egypt and likely originated from Alexandria. The Codex Sinaiticus, also called the Sinai Bible, is an early fourth-century collection of bound manuscripts, containing the majority of the Greek Old Testament (Septuagint) and all of the New Testament (also the letters of Barnabas and the Shepherd of Hermas). This codex laid hidden from the world in a remote monastery in Egypt, near Mount Sinai, from the fourth century until the mid-nineteenth century (nearly 1500 years), when it was discovered by a German New Testament scholar, Constantine von Tischendorf. This codex is a part of a family of approximately 30 New Testament texts originating from this region (Egypt) and time (4th century). These are called the Alexandrian Texts and are considered among the oldest and most reliable for understanding the original New Testament manuscripts.1

They will summon peoples to the mountain
    and there offer the sacrifices of the righteous;
they will feast on the abundance of the seas,
    on the treasures hidden in the sand.

Deuteronomy 33:19

With a number of factors which could not have been planned or predicted, God has preserved His Word and provided overwhelming authentication of its preservation. The Sinai Bible, along with the other Alexandrian Texts, provides another layer of confirmation and evidence of the authenticity and reliability of the Bible. In this article we will examine the influence of the Codex Sinaiticus, its relationship to the Library at Alexandria, and how it reinforces the authenticity of the New Testament.

The Codex Revolution

What is a codex?

As previously stated, the codex is the ancestor or earliest form of the modern book. The word “codex” comes from the Latin word meaning “trunk of a tree,” “block of wood” or “book.” It basically consisted of individual sheets of papyrus (made from a plant) or vellum (made of animal skins) which were folded and bound together. These were grouped into sections, and then the sections were stitched or bound along one edge, often with a cover to protect the assembled pages. 

How did the codex shape Christianity?

Before the codex the common form of writing was the scroll where ink was set down on a roll of papyrus and parchment. When the codex was introduced, it quickly replaced the scroll so that by the 400’s in Egypt, the codex outnumbered the scroll by ten to one. Egypt was front and center for the popularization of the codex because of its rich tradition and expertise in copying from Alexandria. Since there was a significant and influential Christian population in Alexandria, the New Testament and Old Testament became the frontrunners in codex revolution. This new format of collecting writings shaped Christianity in four key ways:

1. It helped to develop the canon. Canon is the term referred to as the books which would be included in the Bible. The codex, with its ability to contain multiple works, encouraged the inclusion of certain writings and the exclusion of others. Over time this process helped to solidify the core writings that would become the twenty-seven books of the New Testament. This provided an authoritative and shared foundation for Christian belief.

2. It strengthened the spread of Christian communities. The codex was more durable and could be more easily transported than scrolls. The papyrus manuscripts would often last for only decades. The codices had a much greater durability, lasting in tact for centuries. They became tools of resilience, ensuring that the scriptures survived, and providing greater accessibility across geographical locations.

3. It made the teaching and practice of scripture more practical. This innovation of the codex meant that Christians could carry their scriptures with them and study them more easily. Gatherings often centered on the reading and interpretation of scripture, with passages recited aloud for the benefit of those who could not read. This accessibility fostered a new way of engagement.

4. It helped shape a new forward looking identity. The codex was not merely a technological advancement. In a world where scrolls were associated with Judaism, Greco-Roman literature, and civic records, the codex marked a departure from tradition. It became a visual and practical representation of Christianity’s newness—a movement that was not bound by the conventions of the past. By embracing this revolutionary format, Christians demonstrated their adaptability.

The Role of Scribes

A Salvaged Page from
the Codex Sinaiticus

The transition from scrolls to codices would have been impossible without the tireless efforts of scribes, also known as copyists. The Jewish scribe did the arduous work of copying new manuscripts of the Old Testament. This was a vital profession for the preservation and transmission of the Old Testament ensuring that sacred texts were transmitted faithfully from one generation to the next. Early Christianity inherited this reverence for scribal work from the Jews and the copyists at the Alexandrian Library, as well. A new sense of urgency was added as the apostles’ writings and the gospels needed to be copied, circulated, and preserved as the church expanded across the Roman Empire. For this reason these scribes and copyists occupied a central role in the production and transmission of early Christian texts. Their work often required extraordinary precision and skill; yet it was seen as a sacred service to God and the community of believers.

Codex Sinaiticus and the Reliability Of the New Testament

The discovery of the Codex Sinaiticus provides another layer of evidence to validate the authenticity of the New Testament–that the New Testament writings we have today faithfully represent the original writings. Yet, there are several questions people naturally ask. Let’s address some:

What about the time gap? If the Codex Sinaiticus is the earliest copy of the entire New Testament that we have, and it was written about 300 years later than the originals, how can we trust that it is reliable? When you consider the time gap by ancient standards, the New Testament is remarkably brief. This is especially the case given that we have a section of the Gospel of John (John Ryland Papyrus) written about 40 years after the original writing. Below is a comparison of the New Testament and other ancient writings:

WorkDate WrittenEarliest CopiesTime Gap
Homer’s Illiad800 BCBC 400 400 Years
Herodotus History 480-425 BCAD 10001350 Years
Plato Tetralogies400 BCAD 8951300 Years
Caesar Gallic Wars100-44 BCAD 800950 Years
Tacitus AnnalsAD 100AD 850750 Years
Greek NT
(John Ryland Papyrus)		AD 40-90AD 13040 Years
Comparison of Time-Gap of New Testament
with Other Ancient Writings

In addition, there was a rapid copying of texts which gives us so many to compare. As disciples and churches rapidly grew, there was an increasing need to make copies of the letters to be read. This is why, as already stated, that the skills of the copyists were in such high demand. Because of this, there are an abundance of New Testament manuscripts from this time. This amount of documents gives us assurance that we can discern the content of the original writings despite the time gap from the original documents.  Here is a break down of the numbers for the Bible:

  • Greek Manuscript total: 5,856
  • Non-Greek Manuscripts (Armenian, Latin, etc.): 18,130
  • Total Manuscripts: 23,986

This is an astounding number when compared to other ancient documents. If you stack existing manuscripts from the average classical writer, it would measure about four feet high. The NT manuscripts would stack to more than one-mile high.

Worktotal number of manuscript copies
Homer’s Illiad 643
Herodotus History 109
Plato Tetralogies 210
Caesar Gallic Wars 251
Tacitus Annals 33
Number of Copies of Classical Writings

What about the variations in the documents? We know that the scribes who copied the manuscripts took extreme efforts to get the transmission accurate. Because of the human element in the transmission, there are differences in the texts. But this is completely understandable given the human complexities and difficulties in copying. What is quite remarkable, given this fact, is that the vast majority of biblical texts remain consistent across all of the biblical manuscripts. Of the 5,856 Greek manuscripts, there is 98% agreement as to what the original writing is. Where there is disagreement, none of these effects doctrine.

Most of these variations are no more significant than spelling differences, small changes of word order or misplaced letters. The chart below shows what the nature of most of these variants are like:

Spelling ConventionsIn English this is similar to using “a” versus “an” or “who” versus “whom.”
Similar Appearances of Words In 1 Timothy 3:16, some manuscripts read “He was revealed in the flesh” while others read “God was revealed in the flesh.” The difference is accounted for how “God” and “he” in abbreviated form in the Greek look very similar: “he” (Greek: Ὃς) and “God” (Greek: Θεὸς). Yet, this has no effect on the meaning.
Similar Sounding WordsSometimes scribes would work in teams, with one scribe reading aloud while the other wrote what was spoken. In some cases, a word would be misheard because it had a similar sound. This would be in English like writing “rode” instead of “road” or “there” instead of “their.”
Transposed WordsChrist Jesus versus Jesus Christ (Word order in the Greek is not nearly as important as it is in English.)
Examples of the Kinds of Variants in NT Copies

Many of these variants are clustered in just a few places over and over again. As they are spotted, it is easy to identify them and make the corrections or clarify the original words. The Codex Sinaiticus contains many scribal corrections to errors they spotted in the copying process. But these are not significant in terms of content and especially doctrine. For example, imagine you come across a copy of a document which reads, “Roses are read, violets are blue. . . .” It’s not hard to see what happened as the original was copied? The correction is fairly simple: “Roses are red, violets are blue…” The scribal corrections are evidence of the importance of and strenuous efforts made toward accuracy. The Codex Sinaiticus (along with the other Alexandrian Texts) is another confirmation that the core message of the Bible has been remarkably preserved.

Conclusion

So, can we trust that the Bible has been accurately translated? YES! The evidence shows a nearly miraculous process which allowed for such a stable transmission. As a result, we can be confident that the translations we have are based on an overwhelmingly strong amount and quality of document sources. The discovery of the Codex Sinaiticus was just another layer of evidence increasing our confidence in the reliable transmission of God’s Word.

“Your word, LORD, is eternal; it stands firm in the heavens.”

Psalm 119:89

The codex advanced God’s Story of Grace by allowing the writings of the apostles and prophets to become more accessible, widespread and diverse communities (many) to become unified (one).

1 Most modern Bible translations are based on the Alexandrian Texts.

What Was the First Bible Of the Church? (Isaiah 49:6)

As we discovered in the previous article, The Library of Alexandria played a crucial role in the creation of the Septuagint (LXX), the Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible. This is highly consequential because the New Testament authors quote it over 300 times. Further, it would become the main Bible (in regard to the Old Testament) of the early church for nearly its first 500 years. So, where did it come from? The Letter of Aristeas reports that Ptolemy II requested that a translation be made of the Hebrew Bible for the Alexandrian Library. He supposedly sent 72 Jewish scholars to Alexandria to carry out the translation. (Septuagint is Latin for 70. It is often abbreviated in Roman numerals as LXX.) Genesis through Deuteronomy was translated around 280 BC.  The other sections of the Old Testament would be translated later at various times and places and by various people. Eventually it became the standard Greek version of the Old Testament for the early Christian and Jewish communities alike. 

It is hard to overstate the importance of the Septuagint for the spread of God’s Story of Grace. It was a substantial leap forward toward the promise below where God declares to the Jewish people:

“I will also make you a light for the Gentiles,
    that my salvation may reach to the ends of the earth.”

Isaiah 49:6

In this article, we will lay out three key ways the LXX (Septuagint) was central to the advance of God’s Story of Grace, and then we will look at what it means for how we understand and read the Bible today.

Three Big Influences of the Septuagint

The LXX made the Old Testament accessible to the world.

After the dispersion of Israel under the Assyrians (722 BC) and later Judah by the Babylonians (597 BC), the majority of Jews remained outside of Israel (even after the return in 538 BC) in lands they were taken captive. Because of this, most Jews lost the ability to read or speak Hebrew (the original language of the Old Testament) within a couple of generations. Of the dispersed Jews the largest and most influential population was in Alexandria, Egypt. Out of this great city came the LXX. As copies of it spread, this allowed for their scriptures to be read wherever they were dispersed since every country in the known world of the Jews spoke Greek because of the influence of Alexander the Great. While the Septuagint was initially used by Jews, it came to be read by a much larger population of gentiles, especially those who were converts to Christianity.

The LXX demonstrated that God is missional.

The very Word of God (The Bible) became translatable without losing its force, meaning or power. This was the first large scale translation of God’s revelation demonstrating that God is eager to bring salvation and the knowledge of himself to the ends of the earth. God’s desire from the very beginning has been for his message to be communicated to the nations as revealed in the original promise to Abraham:

2 “I will make you into a great nation,
    and I will bless you;
I will make your name great,
    and you will be a blessing.
3 I will bless those who bless you,
    and whoever curses you I will curse;
and all peoples on earth
    will be blessed through you.” (Genesis 12:2-3)

From the Tower of Babel (Genesis 11), we know that God did not want to force the world into one language, but created a diversity of languages:

This is what the Lord Almighty says: “In those days ten people from all languages and nations will take firm hold of one Jew by the hem of his robe and say, ‘Let us go with you, because we have heard that God is with you.’” (Zechariah 8:23)

This anticipates a process of biblical translation which today has recorded the Hebrew Old Testament and the Greek New Testament into over 3,400 different languages.

The LXX shaped the theology of the New Testament.

In its use of the Greek, The LXX was able to bring out a greater depth of the messianic or New Covenant meaning latent in the Hebrew words of the Old Testament. This would help to shape the vocabulary and theology of the Christian faith. Below are six examples:

Example # 1: “Christ”

“Jesus was born, who is called Christ.” (Matthew 1:16)

English Translation Greek Word Common Greek meaningSeptuagint Usage Influence On the New Testament
Christchristos (Gr. Χριστός)“to be rubbed on” (referring to oil or ointment) In Hebrew, “mashiach” (מָשִׁיחַ) means “anointed one”honorific title for Jesus “Christ” (“Messiah”)

The Hebrew word Mašíaḥ (מָשִׁיחַ) referred to individuals designated by God for specific roles, such as kings or priests, through anointing with oil. In the LXX, Mašíaḥ was consistently translated as Christos (χριστός), a Greek loanword derived from the verb χρίω (chrī́ō) which means “to anoint”.  This, then, became the honorific title for Jesus, the Christ (the anointed one).

Example # 2: “Sin Offering”

“God did by sending his own Son in the likeness of sinful flesh to be a sin offering.” (Romans 8:3)

English Translation Greek Word Common Greek MeaningSeptuagint Usage Influence On the New Testament
sin offeringperi hamartias “concerning sin” or “for sin” technical term “sin offering,” for Heb. hatta’tJesus himself as the ultimate “sin offering”

“Peri hamartias” (περί ἁμαρτία) is literally translated “concerning sin” or “for sin.” Because of the LXX it became the term used to translate hatta’t (חטאה) which means “sin offering.”

Example # 3: “Covenant”

“This is my blood of the covenant, which is poured out for many,” (Mark 14:24)

English Translation Greek Word Common Greek MeaningSeptuagint Usage Influence On the New Testament
covenantdiathēkē
“last will” (cf. synthēkē, “contract”)divine “covenant,” for Heb. berithdivine covenants

Diathēkē (διαθήκη) in its original Greek usage primarily referred to a last will or testament outlining the distribution of possessions after death. The LXX translators chose diathēkē to translate “berith”(ברית), meaning covenant, in the Hebrew Bible. A more common Greek word for “covenant” was suntheke. Diathēkē emphasizes the one sided (God’s side) of the covenant over suntheke which speaks to a mutual agreement.

Example # 4: “Propitiation”

“He is the propitiation for our sins, and not for ours only but also for the sins of the whole world.” (1 John 2:2)

English Translation Greek Word Common Greek MeaningSeptuagint Usage Influence On the New Testament
propitiation
hilastērion
“expiation” (of the gods)covering of the ark where atonement by blood is made, for Heb. kapporetJesus himself as the consummate “mercy seat” of propitiation

The LXX introduced the term “hilastērion“ (ἱλαστήριον) to translate the Hebrew word kapporeth (כַּפֹּרֶת) which refers to the mercy seat (or lid) of the Ark of the Covenant. This term was understood in the Hellenistic Jewish world to refer to an object that brings atonement or reconciliation through propitiation (satisfying the justice of God). The LXX’s use of “hilastērion” helped solidify its connection to the concept of atonement and forgiveness.  

Example # 5: “Gospel”

“the gospel must first be preached to all nations” (Mark 13:10)

English Translation Greek Word Common Greek MeaningSeptuagint Usage Influence On the New Testament
gospel euangelizomaireport of “good news” from battlespiritual/ salvific “good news,” especially in Isaiah“proclaiming the gospel”

Euangelizomai (εὐαγγελίζομαι) was commonly used for reports of military victories. In the LXX, especially in Isaiah, it was applied to spiritual good news related to the saving work of God. This had a strong influence on the apostolic authors as they linked this word to the proclamation of Jesus’ victory.

Example # 6: “Lord”

“every tongue acknowledge that Jesus Christ is Lord” (Philippians 2:11)

English Translation Greek Word Common Greek MeaningSeptuagint Usage Influence On the New Testament
Lord
kyrios
term of respect for anyone in authoritytranslation of “Lord” (both adonai and kyrios)title for “Lord” Jesus

The LXX significantly changed our understanding of the word “kyrios” (κύριος) by establishing it as a primary Greek equivalent for the Hebrew name for God (YHWH) and the title “Lord.” “Kyrios” originally meant “lord” or “master;” the LXX’s use solidified its association with the divine name and the concept of God’s sovereignty. 

Reading the Septuagint Today

1. The LXX has a real authority, but it is derivative.

Obviously, since the Greek translation of the Old Testament is quoted over 300 times in the New Testament, this shows it has great importance. But its authority is derived from the actual Hebrew manuscripts it translates. The inescapable logic is that the Hebrew text is primary since it is the one being translated. The original Hebrew documents written by the prophetic authors have primary or ultimate authority, what Jesus labelled as Moses, Prophets and the Psalms.

Everything must be fulfilled that is written about me in the Law of Moses, the Prophets and the Psalms. (Luke 24:44)

So, it is clear that the LXX is not a separate authority from the Hebrew Bible, but derives its authority as it reflects and correctly draws out the meanings of the original text.

2. The LXX shows the messianic movement of God’s Story In the New Testament.

As seen above, the LXX was able to take the Hebrew language and draw out the richer implications of the words which would serve as a vehicle for the language of the New Testament. Even before Jesus the Messiah came to this earth, the Story of God’s Grace was advancing forward toward the Savior as seen in the LXX. This is further seen in how the Greek translators, on occasion, subtly transform their Hebrew source in ways that give a more personal glimpse of the Messiah. Here are some selected examples:

Genesis 49:10

In Genesis 49: 10, Jacob’s blessing on Judah reads from the Hebrew:

The scepter will not depart from Judah,
 nor the ruler’s staff from between his feet,
until he to whom it belongs shall come and the obedience of the nations shall be his. (Genesis 49:10, NIV)

From the LXX it reads from the Greek:

A ruler shall not fail from Judah, nor a prince from his loins, until there come the things stored up for him; and he is the expectation of nations. (Genesis 49:10, LXX)

The Greek translator personifies the metaphor by substituting “ruler” for “scepter” and “prince” for “ruler’s staff.” This emphasis on the personal nature of the prophetic blessing sets the stage for other Jewish writings that interpret the prophecy with a messianic emphasis.

Isaiah 26:18

See, I lay a stone in Zion, a tested stone,
    a precious cornerstone for a sure foundation;
the one who relies on it
    will never be stricken with panic. (Isaiah 28:16, NIV)

This is important passage for messianic trajectory. (see 1 Peter 2:6) This trajectory is aided with the Greek translation, which reads:

I lay for the foundations of Zion a costly stone, a choice, a corner-stone, a precious stone, for its foundations; and he that believes on him  shall by no means be ashamed. (Isaiah 28:16, LXX)

The Greek, as can be seen, adds the object of faith: “he that believes on him.” This personifies the stone as an object of faith, which— combined with the importance of Zion (Jerusalem) in the Old Testament— suggests that the translator understands the “stone” as a messianic metaphor.

Psalm 72:17

Development of the preexistence of the Messiah can be seen more clearly in the Greek translation, while the Hebrew Bible is less clear on this matter. Here are two Old Greek examples which suggest that the idea was developing within Judaism. First, Psalm 72, which is a hymn of praise to a messianic king, states in the Hebrew in v.17:

May his name endure forever;
    may it continue as long as the sun. (Psalm 72:17, NIV)

The Greek, however, renders the second clause, “May his name endure prior to the sun.” This “prior to the sun” points in a temporal sense to preexistence.

Conclusion

As Paul writes in Galatians 4:4, when the fullness of time had come, God sent forth his Son, there was much that needed to occur before Jesus could come to this earth. One of the key developments in this unfolding Story of Grace was translation of the Septuagint.